發(fā)布時間：2023-02-27 11:15:14
序言：寫作是分享個人見解和探索未知領(lǐng)域的橋梁，我們?yōu)槟x了8篇的營銷制度樣本，期待這些樣本能夠?yàn)槟峁┴S富的參考和啟發(fā)，請盡情閱讀。
關(guān)鍵詞：醫(yī)藥營銷；執(zhí)業(yè)制度；注冊
藥品是人們用以防病治病、康復(fù)保健的特殊商品，它既是 商品又不同于一般商品。目前，人們將從事醫(yī)藥銷售人員稱之 為醫(yī)藥代表。在西方國家，醫(yī)藥代表這一職業(yè)至少已有上百年 歷史，國內(nèi)的醫(yī)藥代表最初也是來自改革開放后進(jìn)人中國市場 的外國醫(yī)藥企業(yè)及其合資企業(yè)，由于外資、合資企業(yè)中的醫(yī)藥 代表非常有效地促進(jìn)了企業(yè)產(chǎn)品的推廣和銷售業(yè)績的增長，隨 后，國內(nèi)醫(yī)藥企業(yè)開始紛紛效仿。我國各地也陸續(xù)出現(xiàn)了這一 新職業(yè)―――醫(yī)藥代表，而與之相對應(yīng)的管理規(guī)范卻嚴(yán)重缺乏和 滯后.
以英國為代表的西方發(fā)達(dá)國家，已對從事藥品銷售的人員 實(shí)施了認(rèn)證管理，有著較為嚴(yán)格的準(zhǔn)入門檻.
我國外商投資企業(yè)協(xié)會藥品研制和開發(fā)行業(yè)委員會（簡稱 RDPAC）、38家跨國制藥會員公司在全體會員公司中全面推廣 “RDPAC醫(yī)藥代表內(nèi)部認(rèn)證項(xiàng)目”，并于2006年制定新的“藥 品推廣行為準(zhǔn)則”，旨在建立行業(yè)自律和防控醫(yī)藥商業(yè)賄賂的 長效機(jī)制。2003年，RDPAC開始對英國、日本和香港的相關(guān)認(rèn) 證項(xiàng)目進(jìn)行研究。在借鑒這些國家和地區(qū)現(xiàn)有經(jīng)驗(yàn)的基礎(chǔ)上， 2004年RDPAC醫(yī)藥代表內(nèi)部認(rèn)證項(xiàng)目正式立項(xiàng)，確定了“醫(yī) 藥代表內(nèi)部認(rèn)證項(xiàng)目”的初步框架。由于發(fā)達(dá)國家和我國在醫(yī) 療衛(wèi)生保障體系以及公共事務(wù)管理方面有較大差別，因此其管 理模式只起到借鑒和引導(dǎo)的作用。而我國外資企業(yè)建立的“醫(yī) 藥代表內(nèi)部認(rèn)證項(xiàng)目”牽涉的企業(yè)同我國17 000家醫(yī)療企業(yè)相 比，所占比重非常小。加之企業(yè)內(nèi)部監(jiān)督不具有強(qiáng)制力，在現(xiàn)有 國情下很難發(fā)揮較大作用。因此，應(yīng)建立以政府主導(dǎo)的行業(yè)自 律的醫(yī)藥注冊認(rèn)證模式.
目前，我國醫(yī)藥營銷行業(yè)從業(yè)人員良莠不齊、文化程度偏 低、法律觀念淡漠、職業(yè)道德觀念不強(qiáng)。針對醫(yī)藥營銷行業(yè)存在 的問題，國家食品藥品監(jiān)督管理局（簡稱食藥監(jiān)局）應(yīng)建立市場 準(zhǔn)入制度，從認(rèn)證入手，加強(qiáng)醫(yī)藥營銷行業(yè)管理，提高我國醫(yī)藥 營銷行業(yè)的業(yè)務(wù)水平和職業(yè)道德修養(yǎng)，規(guī)范醫(yī)藥營銷行業(yè)行為，維護(hù)消費(fèi)者權(quán)益，使我國醫(yī)藥營銷行業(yè)逐步走上規(guī)范有序、 公開統(tǒng)一的健康發(fā)展軌道，并建立符合我國國情的醫(yī)藥營銷人 員執(zhí)業(yè)資格考試制度和醫(yī)藥營銷人員誠信保障體系等.
1建立醫(yī)藥營銷人員執(zhí)業(yè)資格考試制度 應(yīng)通過執(zhí)業(yè)資格考試制度這一準(zhǔn)入門檻，提高醫(yī)藥營銷行 業(yè)從業(yè)人員素質(zhì).
1.1考試組織和內(nèi)容 醫(yī)藥營銷人員資格考試實(shí)行全國統(tǒng)一大綱、統(tǒng)一命題、統(tǒng) 一組織的考試制度。原則上每年舉辦1次。內(nèi)容包括：中國醫(yī)藥 衛(wèi)生概述、醫(yī)療機(jī)構(gòu)組成和現(xiàn)狀、制藥工業(yè)概述、基礎(chǔ)醫(yī)學(xué)、臨 床醫(yī)學(xué)藥理學(xué)、藥品推廣行為準(zhǔn)則和相關(guān)法律、法規(guī)[1]。相關(guān)部、 局負(fù)責(zé)編制醫(yī)藥營銷人員執(zhí)業(yè)資格考試大綱并組織命題等工 作，組織執(zhí)業(yè)資格的考前培訓(xùn)。同時負(fù)責(zé)審定醫(yī)藥營銷人員執(zhí) 業(yè)資格考試科目、考試大綱和考試試題，組織實(shí)施考務(wù)工作，并 對醫(yī)藥營銷人員執(zhí)業(yè)資格考試進(jìn)行檢查、監(jiān)督、指導(dǎo)和確定合 格標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。執(zhí)業(yè)資格考試合格的，由省、自治區(qū)、直轄市人事部門 頒發(fā)人事部統(tǒng)一印制，人事部、食藥監(jiān)局用印《中華人民共和國 醫(yī)藥營銷執(zhí)業(yè)資格證書》，該證書全國范圍內(nèi)有效.
1.2執(zhí)業(yè)資格考試報(bào)名條件 相關(guān)部門可以借鑒執(zhí)業(yè)藥師考試設(shè)定報(bào)名條件，如相關(guān)學(xué) 科、學(xué)歷、從事相關(guān)專業(yè)年限等，對從業(yè)人員進(jìn)行條件和準(zhǔn)入的 規(guī)范.
1.3醫(yī)藥營銷行業(yè)執(zhí)業(yè)人員注冊制度 國家對醫(yī)藥營銷人員實(shí)行準(zhǔn)入制度，凡取得《中華人民共 和國醫(yī)藥營銷執(zhí)業(yè)資格證書》的人員必須經(jīng)過注冊才能從事醫(yī) 藥營銷活動。對執(zhí)業(yè)資格注冊規(guī)定年限，在注冊有效屆滿需要 繼續(xù)從事醫(yī)藥營銷活動的，可按規(guī)定的程序換發(fā)新證書。對違 反相關(guān)規(guī)定的采取收回、注銷等手段規(guī)范醫(yī)藥營銷人員執(zhí)業(yè)行 為.
2建立醫(yī)藥營銷人員誠信檔案體系 建立失信懲戒機(jī)制，提高醫(yī)藥營銷人員失信成本，是醫(yī)藥 營銷人員誠信體系的重要一環(huán)。誠信檔案，就是把醫(yī)藥營銷人 員個人在履行職責(zé)和社會生活等方面的個人誠信信息匯集起 來，進(jìn)行整理存儲，從而形成個人的誠信資料。醫(yī)藥營銷人員的 個人誠信信息將與履行誠信信息一起納入檔案記錄和考評范 圍。誠信檔案主要由醫(yī)藥營銷人員個人基本信息、履行職責(zé)誠 信信息和社會誠信信息3部分構(gòu)成，總的思路是以履職誠信為 主、社會誠信為輔。建立醫(yī)藥營銷人員誠信檔案應(yīng)由政府的專 門部門牽頭，組織有關(guān)部門收集、整理其誠信信息，全面、準(zhǔn)確、 及時記錄醫(yī)藥營銷人員的行為活動。醫(yī)藥營銷人員誠信檔案對 加強(qiáng)醫(yī)藥營銷人員誠信建設(shè)有重要作用。在美國，某人一旦有 嚴(yán)重的誠信缺失行為，就被記錄在案，他從事任何活動都會受 到影響，可謂終生損失巨大[2]。西方發(fā)達(dá)國家的實(shí)踐證明，建立 個人誠信檔案是一項(xiàng)約束個人行為及個人進(jìn)行自我約束的有 效制度。我國國內(nèi)一些地方政府也先后采取不同的措施和手段 在建設(shè)醫(yī)藥營銷人員誠信檔案方面進(jìn)行探索、實(shí)踐.
2.1醫(yī)藥營銷人員誠信檔案的構(gòu)成 醫(yī)藥營銷人員誠信檔案是醫(yī)藥營銷行業(yè)信用的重要組成 部分。主要內(nèi)容包括：執(zhí)業(yè)人員基本情況、良好行為與不良行為 記錄、業(yè)績匯總、繼續(xù)教育情況、能力表現(xiàn)、投訴情況等.
2.2醫(yī)藥營銷人員誠信檔案的管理 隨著網(wǎng)絡(luò)的發(fā)展，可將醫(yī)藥營銷人員誠信檔案與有關(guān)部門 的信息系統(tǒng)互聯(lián)互通，從同業(yè)征信向聯(lián)合征信過渡，實(shí)現(xiàn)信息 共享，以更加全面地反映醫(yī)藥營銷人員的誠信狀況.
（1）管理原則。醫(yī)藥營銷人員誠信檔案按照“統(tǒng)一規(guī)劃、分 級建設(shè)、分步實(shí)施、信息共享”的原則進(jìn)行，逐步實(shí)現(xiàn)醫(yī)藥營銷 行業(yè)誠信檔案系統(tǒng)覆蓋全行業(yè)的目標(biāo)。各級醫(yī)藥營銷行業(yè)主管 部門負(fù)責(zé)組織所轄區(qū)內(nèi)執(zhí)業(yè)人員誠信檔案系統(tǒng)的建設(shè)和管理 工作.
（2）組織實(shí)施。食藥監(jiān)局組織建立一級執(zhí)業(yè)人員誠信檔案 系統(tǒng)。各省食藥監(jiān)局負(fù)責(zé)一級執(zhí)業(yè)人員誠信檔案的日常管理工 作，包括有關(guān)誠信信息的征集、登記、審核、更新及管理等工作， 提供網(wǎng)上誠信信息查詢服務(wù)；并負(fù)責(zé)起草相關(guān)的誠信信息管理 制度，包括信息征集、使用和更新的規(guī)則與方法，信息公示的內(nèi) 容、范圍和保留時限，投訴信息的處理辦法等.
（3）信息采集。誠信檔案信息依法從多種途徑采集，充分利 用現(xiàn)有信息資源，從政府部門、醫(yī)藥營銷行業(yè)等多種途徑獲得， 并與機(jī)構(gòu)資質(zhì)、年檢制度及專業(yè)人員執(zhí)業(yè)資格注冊工作有機(jī)結(jié) 合。不良行為記錄，除要求醫(yī)藥營銷行業(yè)自報(bào)外，各級食藥監(jiān)局 也應(yīng)及時報(bào)送醫(yī)藥營銷人員的違法處理情況，醫(yī)藥營銷人員誠 信檔案將按規(guī)定予以公示.
醫(yī)藥營銷人員獲省級表彰或榮譽(yù)稱號，也可作為良好行為 記錄載入執(zhí)業(yè)人員的誠信檔案。良好行為記錄由醫(yī)藥營銷行業(yè) 采集或執(zhí)業(yè)人員直接報(bào)送.
醫(yī)藥營銷人員出現(xiàn)違反醫(yī)藥營銷的相關(guān)法律、法規(guī)的行 為，并受到處罰的，即可將不良行為載入該執(zhí)業(yè)人員的誠信檔 案。不良行為記錄以營銷行業(yè)組織報(bào)送為主，記入檔案視情節(jié) 收回或注銷執(zhí)業(yè)資格證書.
（4）信息維護(hù)和更新。醫(yī)藥營銷人員誠信檔案是由政府組織建立的，由系統(tǒng)管理部門對信息進(jìn)行收集和更新。對涉及企 業(yè)商業(yè)秘密的信息要注意保密，實(shí)行授權(quán)查詢；未經(jīng)核實(shí)的信 息不得在網(wǎng)上公示；不良記錄在公示前，必須經(jīng)過嚴(yán)格的審核 批準(zhǔn)程序.
（5）投訴處理。醫(yī)藥營銷人員誠信檔案系統(tǒng)專門設(shè)立了網(wǎng) 上投訴欄目，社會公眾可以在網(wǎng)上對執(zhí)業(yè)人員違法、違紀(jì)行為 進(jìn)行投訴，社會公眾可按統(tǒng)一格式提交有關(guān)醫(yī)藥營銷方面的投 訴。系統(tǒng)管理部門對收到的信息進(jìn)行登記、整理、分類，并根據(jù) 被投訴對象和投訴內(nèi)容，轉(zhuǎn)交有關(guān)行政部門進(jìn)行審核、處理，或 轉(zhuǎn)給被投訴機(jī)構(gòu)進(jìn)行處理。醫(yī)藥營銷行業(yè)對系統(tǒng)管理部門轉(zhuǎn)去 的投訴在15天內(nèi)反饋意見。無正當(dāng)理由未按時反饋的，將在網(wǎng) 上公示投訴情況。此外，還要公示對違法、違規(guī)行為的
整改結(jié) 果。如要撤銷公示，須由被公示單位或人員申請，經(jīng)相關(guān)行政主 管部門同意，方可從網(wǎng)上撤銷；不良行為記錄分類在醫(yī)藥營銷 人員誠信檔案中保留一定期限.
（6）信息查詢。按照依法、合理保護(hù)企業(yè)商業(yè)秘密和分類、 分級管理原則，醫(yī)藥營銷人員誠信檔案可分為公示信息和授權(quán) 查詢信息兩大類.
2.3誠信檔案管理的具體要求 （1）為了保證建立醫(yī)藥營銷人員誠信檔案工作的順利進(jìn)行， 需要有正確的理論作指導(dǎo)，要認(rèn)真總結(jié)檔案管理工作的經(jīng)驗(yàn).
此項(xiàng)任務(wù)是一個標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化的體系，在具體操作中，絕非一個檔案 部門所能承擔(dān)的，應(yīng)由醫(yī)藥營銷人員管理部門來研究和牽頭運(yùn) 作，各相關(guān)部門相互配合，并且要有現(xiàn)代技術(shù)的支持。具體內(nèi)容 包括：個人誠信信息的收集、登記、評價、考核和誠信信息資源 的共享、誠信檔案管理、誠信等級認(rèn)證等.
（2）對醫(yī)藥營銷人員誠信信息的記錄采用以“0”為基準(zhǔn)的 正負(fù)分記錄方式，實(shí)行等級制，分優(yōu)秀、良好、一般、較差4個等 級.
（3）保證醫(yī)藥營銷人員個人誠信檔案信息的公開、透明。信 息既向本人公開，也向廣大群眾公開，讓醫(yī)藥營銷人員的誠信 受到社會廣大群眾的監(jiān)督。有關(guān)授權(quán)單位和個人可以在規(guī)定范 圍內(nèi)查詢醫(yī)藥營銷人員誠信檔案，醫(yī)藥營銷人員對有異議的個 人誠信信息可以提出申請，誠信檔案管理部門按照一定程序進(jìn) 行更正.
（4）要有針對性的對醫(yī)藥營銷人員誠信情況進(jìn)行跟蹤考察， 并將考察結(jié)果反饋給專門的誠信檔案管理部門，使之能定期對 醫(yī)藥營銷人員誠信檔案信息進(jìn)行更新.
（5）在誠信檔案中根據(jù)醫(yī)藥營銷人員個人實(shí)際情況，追加 提示信息和警示信息。提示信息和警示信息可對出現(xiàn)非誠信行 為傾向的醫(yī)藥營銷人員起到提示和警示的作用.
以上探討建立我國醫(yī)藥營銷人員執(zhí)業(yè)資格考試制度及從 業(yè)人員個人誠信檔案制度的個人見解，主要是從政策層面規(guī)范 醫(yī)藥營銷人員執(zhí)業(yè)行為，包括制定醫(yī)藥營銷人員的準(zhǔn)入制度、 加強(qiáng)醫(yī)藥營銷人員誠信檔案的管理等。要全面提高醫(yī)藥營銷人 員的執(zhí)業(yè)素質(zhì)，還應(yīng)加強(qiáng)其職業(yè)道德與職業(yè)修養(yǎng).
關(guān)鍵詞：藥品；營銷渠道；渠道聯(lián)盟
在中國的大部分藥品營銷渠道中，藥品制造商、批發(fā)商和零售商之間是一種松散的合作關(guān)系，各自為政，各行其是，每個渠道成員都追求自己的利潤最大化，整個渠道效率低下。在當(dāng)前激烈的市場競爭中，醫(yī)藥企業(yè)僅靠自身力量與競爭對手單打獨(dú)斗已經(jīng)很難取勝，因此，醫(yī)藥企業(yè)要通過制度的創(chuàng)新，與中間商的密切合作，形成渠道聯(lián)盟，鍛造供銷價值鏈，以獲得競爭優(yōu)勢。本文將新制度經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)的相關(guān)理論應(yīng)用于藥品營銷渠道的研究中，對藥品營銷渠道的制度創(chuàng)新進(jìn)行探討。
一、渠道聯(lián)盟是一種新的制度安排
新制度經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)發(fā)端于科斯，科斯在1937年發(fā)表的《企業(yè)的性質(zhì)》一文中認(rèn)為，“企業(yè)與市場是經(jīng)濟(jì)組織制度的兩極”?？扑挂虢灰壮杀咀鳛榉治龉ぞ?，認(rèn)為企業(yè)選擇不同制度安排的基本依據(jù)是交易成本。企業(yè)和市場在資源配置中都有其運(yùn)行的成本，企業(yè)存在內(nèi)部管理成本，而市場則存在交易成本。如果利用市場方式協(xié)調(diào)組織間關(guān)系的交易成本大于利用一體化組織的內(nèi)部管理成本時，為了減少交易成本，就會出現(xiàn)一體化的企業(yè)，反之，則傾向于市場這一制度安排。企業(yè)和市場這兩種制度安排可以互相替代。
威廉姆森認(rèn)為，企業(yè)進(jìn)行不同制度安排的目的在于使生產(chǎn)成本和交易成本最小化，各種制度的安排與經(jīng)濟(jì)績效之間存在一定的關(guān)系。他運(yùn)用了交易成本這一分析工具，從非確定性、交易頻率和資產(chǎn)專用性這三個維度變量進(jìn)行論證并發(fā)展了科斯的企業(yè)理論。他認(rèn)為，市場的出現(xiàn)是不確定性小、交易頻率和資產(chǎn)專用性低的結(jié)果，而當(dāng)這些變量均處于高水平時，企業(yè)成為了有效的協(xié)調(diào)方式。在市場與企業(yè)之間，還存在著一些中間組織形態(tài)。隨后，拉森認(rèn)為在市場和企業(yè)之間還存在著雙邊、多邊和混合的中間組織的交易形式，提出了“三極制度框架”，即市場—網(wǎng)絡(luò)組織—企業(yè)，并綜合了斯密和錢德勒將市場與企業(yè)隱喻為“看不見的手”與“看得見的手”的觀點(diǎn)，將網(wǎng)絡(luò)組織稱為“握手”，網(wǎng)絡(luò)組織也隨之成為企業(yè)間經(jīng)濟(jì)活動的一種制度安排。目前，關(guān)于網(wǎng)絡(luò)組織還沒有統(tǒng)一的定義，網(wǎng)絡(luò)組織的含義比較廣泛，包含了各組織間以合作關(guān)系構(gòu)成的各種群體。其中，戰(zhàn)略聯(lián)盟是網(wǎng)絡(luò)組織中比較常見的一種形式，邁克爾·波特認(rèn)為，“聯(lián)盟是指企業(yè)之間進(jìn)行長期合作，它超越了正常的市場交易但又未達(dá)到合并的程度。聯(lián)盟的方式包括技術(shù)許可生產(chǎn)、供應(yīng)協(xié)定、營銷協(xié)定和合資企業(yè)。聯(lián)盟無須擴(kuò)大企業(yè)規(guī)模而可以擴(kuò)展企業(yè)市場邊界”。而渠道戰(zhàn)略聯(lián)盟就是制造商與中間商之間的一種合作形式，也屬于協(xié)調(diào)組織之間經(jīng)濟(jì)活動的一種制度安排。
從渠道理論的發(fā)展來看，在經(jīng)歷了20世紀(jì)初以效率和效益為重心對渠道結(jié)構(gòu)的研究，以及20世紀(jì)60年代以權(quán)力和沖突為主對渠道行為的研究之后，以聯(lián)盟為主題來研究渠道關(guān)系成為渠道理論研究的重點(diǎn)。西方營銷學(xué)者們認(rèn)為，由于營銷渠道是一個聯(lián)合體，各成員為實(shí)現(xiàn)自身的目標(biāo)，存在著利益之爭，渠道成員間合作常以失敗而告終，為此渠道戰(zhàn)略聯(lián)盟等關(guān)系形式應(yīng)運(yùn)而生，建立渠道聯(lián)盟能夠解決渠道內(nèi)和渠道所面臨的一些問題，并使各成員獲得更多利潤，增強(qiáng)他們在市場中的競爭優(yōu)勢。20世紀(jì)90年代以后，以奧德森、顧萊惕、貝克爾和斯特恩為代表一些西方營銷學(xué)家對渠道關(guān)系和渠道聯(lián)盟進(jìn)行了研究，其研究認(rèn)為，企業(yè)應(yīng)選擇具有互補(bǔ)能力的企業(yè)作為建立聯(lián)盟的對象，因?yàn)榍莱蓡T能從聯(lián)盟中獲取更多利潤并保持持續(xù)的競爭優(yōu)勢，所以不同渠道層次的成員應(yīng)努力構(gòu)建和增進(jìn)渠道內(nèi)的聯(lián)盟，渠道聯(lián)盟的實(shí)質(zhì)是承諾和信任。渠道聯(lián)盟正在成為渠道創(chuàng)新的方向。因此，本文認(rèn)為，在藥品營銷渠道中，從制度層面進(jìn)行創(chuàng)新主要是構(gòu)建藥品渠道聯(lián)盟，企業(yè)可以建立橫向渠道聯(lián)盟和縱向渠道聯(lián)盟。
二、建立藥品渠道聯(lián)盟
【關(guān)鍵詞】改革穩(wěn)定；管理滯后；營銷問題及解決
隨著改革開放，經(jīng)濟(jì)制度的不斷改革，電力企業(yè)自負(fù)盈虧的政策出臺后，對于縣級供電企業(yè)而言，電力營銷管理是必要的管理手段，涉及到電力企業(yè)的生存和發(fā)展。提高電力營銷管理水平，對于提高企業(yè)的經(jīng)濟(jì)效益具有重要作用。因此，本文針對電力營銷進(jìn)行探討。
一、對制約供電營銷方面存在的問題進(jìn)行探討
落后的電網(wǎng)設(shè)備是供電企業(yè)營銷裹足不前的一個主要原因；體制改革不盡快切中要害，延誤了企業(yè)經(jīng)營實(shí)體的形成，影響了企業(yè)的發(fā)展和效益的提高；營銷管理粗放，手段單一，是企業(yè)開拓市場不足、缺乏竟?fàn)幜Φ闹饕?；營銷配電管理自動化水平低、科技含量少，新技術(shù)、新產(chǎn)品的應(yīng)用率不高，致使運(yùn)營管理成本高，勞動生產(chǎn)率低，效益不高的主要原因；以及人員安于現(xiàn)狀，無竟?fàn)幰庾R、風(fēng)險(xiǎn)意識和危機(jī)意識，仍然存在著計(jì)劃經(jīng)濟(jì)體制下形成壟斷經(jīng)營管理的優(yōu)越感，小富即安，觀念陳舊、行政管理不適應(yīng)市場發(fā)展的要求等。
二、營銷制度改進(jìn)措施
（一）改革前企業(yè)組織管理模式概述。生產(chǎn)技術(shù)部為職能部室，主要負(fù)責(zé)主網(wǎng)的生產(chǎn)技術(shù)管理，下設(shè)有調(diào)度室、變電工區(qū)、檢修工區(qū)、三個地區(qū)性供電所共6個二級機(jī)構(gòu)，負(fù)責(zé)管轄區(qū)域內(nèi)輸、變、配設(shè)備的運(yùn)行檢修等工作；變電工區(qū)同時承擔(dān)了屬地110kV變電站運(yùn)行代管的職責(zé)。營銷部為職能部室，主要負(fù)責(zé)電力營銷和低壓配網(wǎng)管理，下設(shè)電力客戶服務(wù)中心（電費(fèi)管理中心）、農(nóng)電工區(qū)2個二級機(jī)構(gòu)。電力客戶服務(wù)中心負(fù)責(zé)所轄區(qū)域內(nèi)用戶的營銷業(yè)務(wù)工作；農(nóng)電工區(qū)及下屬11個供電營業(yè)所承擔(dān)農(nóng)村綜合變0.4千伏及以下用電營銷、低壓配電網(wǎng)的運(yùn)行維護(hù)等工作。
（二）措施，加強(qiáng)營銷管理，挖掘內(nèi)部潛力，為拓展電力市場奠定基礎(chǔ)。
1. 要從重生產(chǎn)管理轉(zhuǎn)變到重經(jīng)營管理。電力企業(yè)同其它企業(yè)一樣，把追求利潤的最大化作為企業(yè)經(jīng)營目標(biāo)。不能為了生產(chǎn)而生產(chǎn)，為了安全而安全，不論是生產(chǎn)管理還是經(jīng)營管理，都是手段而不是目的。所以，要從營銷、資本、資金管理等方面采取有利于提高企業(yè)經(jīng)濟(jì)效益的管理方法和激勵約束機(jī)制，全方位地開展經(jīng)營管理。
2. 有必要進(jìn)行用電行業(yè)的重新分類，我國現(xiàn)行用電分類是1976年頒布的，目前執(zhí)行過程中與電力市場的發(fā)展極不適應(yīng)，因?yàn)楫a(chǎn)業(yè)層出不窮，原行業(yè)經(jīng)過多年發(fā)展演變、改革重組，與原來的用電分類不相吻合，應(yīng)盡快進(jìn)行合理科學(xué)的行業(yè)分類，作為科學(xué)定價和市場營銷的依據(jù)。
3. 發(fā)揮價格杠桿作用，優(yōu)化資源配置。在原電價體系中，政策性分類電價比重太大，兩部制電價中基本電價比重偏小，且實(shí)施范圍小，造成電力部門投資回收周期長。為體現(xiàn)公平、合理分?jǐn)傠娏Τ杀?，要科學(xué)定價，并且本著國家有利、企業(yè)有益、客戶滿意的原則，在電價執(zhí)行中發(fā)揮彈性杠桿作用。在國家宏觀調(diào)控指導(dǎo)下和當(dāng)?shù)匚飪r部門的監(jiān)管下，適當(dāng)?shù)赜善髽I(yè)靈活執(zhí)行，有益于促銷。
4. 注重做好企業(yè)基礎(chǔ)工作?？蛻魣?bào)裝接電、建卡立戶，日常的抄表、收費(fèi)，計(jì)量監(jiān)督、檢查，是供電企業(yè)營銷工作內(nèi)部完成的一些具體內(nèi)容。往往由于這些日常工作不慎重，給企業(yè)造成經(jīng)濟(jì)損失，形象聲譽(yù)受損，甚至發(fā)生營業(yè)事故，與客戶產(chǎn)生糾紛。所以，要抓好管理，苦練內(nèi)功，嚴(yán)格規(guī)章制度的執(zhí)行，杜絕事故，減少差錯，形成高效的服務(wù)，增強(qiáng)客戶對企業(yè)的信任感。
（三）規(guī)范服務(wù)，營造出供電企業(yè)營銷的新概念。
1. 必要的廣告是供電企業(yè)和客戶溝通的橋梁，特別是公益性廣告作為供電企業(yè)應(yīng)多投入。如：就安全用電、合理經(jīng)濟(jì)用電、電力設(shè)施的保護(hù)，結(jié)合兩改一同價工作做一些公益宣傳。
2. 供電企業(yè)建立電力需求引導(dǎo)展廳。主要開展用電咨詢服務(wù)，可就用電如何規(guī)劃、如何安裝、日常維護(hù)注意哪些問題等介紹給客戶；開展電力產(chǎn)品及電器產(chǎn)品演示、展銷，假冒劣質(zhì)產(chǎn)品陳列等，給客戶提供電力銷售全方位、多視角的咨詢、服務(wù)。
3. 取消用電申請，將電力客戶與供電企業(yè)的供需關(guān)系完全平等起來，擺正服務(wù)與被服務(wù)的關(guān)系，真正做到客戶一個電話，剩下的事由我們來做的服務(wù)。
4. 免費(fèi)給客戶提供用電規(guī)劃、設(shè)計(jì)、材料計(jì)劃、資金預(yù)算等服務(wù)。
做好以上幾點(diǎn)的同時，企業(yè)的營銷服務(wù)一定要規(guī)范，包括機(jī)構(gòu)的設(shè)置，規(guī)章制度的建立，人員的行為以及舉止用語等，樹立起一個全新的企業(yè)形象。
（四）應(yīng)用新技術(shù)，實(shí)現(xiàn)營銷現(xiàn)代化管理，降低成本，提高效益。電力工業(yè)做為技術(shù)密集型產(chǎn)業(yè)，科技含量較高，然而供電企業(yè)在配網(wǎng)的管理方面仍然較為落后，開關(guān)跳閘、線路短路、接地等故障判斷查尋，還很原始，開關(guān)刀閘的投切、運(yùn)行方式的變更還需人工現(xiàn)場操作。營業(yè)抄表人員仍要拿著表卡走訪千家萬戶。工作效率低，運(yùn)行成本高，經(jīng)營損耗大，是縣供電企業(yè)效益差的主要原因。在近年的農(nóng)網(wǎng)改造工程中，采用的新技術(shù)、新產(chǎn)品還是很少，科技應(yīng)用沒有滲透其中，建議能否考慮首先從縣城配網(wǎng)開始逐步推廣，加大科技投入，推廣和應(yīng)用先進(jìn)的營銷管理手段。
五、夯實(shí)生產(chǎn)經(jīng)營基礎(chǔ)建設(shè)，強(qiáng)化營銷信息監(jiān)控管理
加強(qiáng)供電生產(chǎn)經(jīng)營管理基礎(chǔ)工作的重點(diǎn)主要在基層。基層是供電生產(chǎn)經(jīng)營管理工作的重要載體，其工作水平的高低直接影響供電管理整體工作水平的質(zhì)量。縣級供電企業(yè)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)對此要予以高度重視，切實(shí)加強(qiáng)對供電生產(chǎn)經(jīng)營管理基礎(chǔ)工作的組織領(lǐng)導(dǎo)，下大力氣，長抓不懈。以求真務(wù)實(shí)的工作作風(fēng)、科學(xué)嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)?shù)墓ぷ鲬B(tài)度，深入細(xì)致地開展工作，把供電生產(chǎn)經(jīng)營管理基礎(chǔ)工作扎扎實(shí)實(shí)做好。
（六）堅(jiān)持依法治企，全面提升服務(wù)水平。依法治企的首要和根本問題就是供用電雙方的關(guān)系問題，是生產(chǎn)經(jīng)營管理的基礎(chǔ)和前提。貫徹落實(shí)依法治企，要從觀念、機(jī)制、環(huán)境三個方面入手，從根本上進(jìn)一步鞏固依法治企成果，優(yōu)化供電服務(wù)。強(qiáng)化意識。牢固樹立依法治企觀念，始終堅(jiān)持“有法必依，管理必嚴(yán)、違法必究”的治企原則，堅(jiān)持“內(nèi)外并舉、重在治內(nèi)，以內(nèi)促外”的工作方針。健全機(jī)制。努力構(gòu)建科學(xué)、嚴(yán)密、高效、規(guī)范的生產(chǎn)經(jīng)營新機(jī)制，不斷提高管理水平。營造氛圍。認(rèn)真落實(shí)“加強(qiáng)咨詢輔導(dǎo)，優(yōu)化辦電服務(wù)，全面落實(shí)公開辦電”等規(guī)定外。
三、措施整體思路
現(xiàn)代經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展方式方式既要求從粗放型增長轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)榧s型增長，又要求從通常的增長轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)槿妗f(xié)調(diào)、可持續(xù)的發(fā)展。電力發(fā)展也是一樣。
因此，電力營銷以“管理集約化、機(jī)構(gòu)扁平化、作業(yè)專業(yè)化”為原則，結(jié)合企業(yè)實(shí)際，對全局生產(chǎn)、營銷組織模式進(jìn)行優(yōu)化和整合，變革組織模式，以構(gòu)建功能合理、整體協(xié)調(diào)、運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)高效的組織體系。
四、結(jié)語
近年來，縣級供電企業(yè)基礎(chǔ)管理工作雖然取得了較好的成績，但實(shí)際工作中其存在的弊端也日益暴露出來。隨著“三集五大”運(yùn)行機(jī)制改革及SG186營銷系統(tǒng)上線運(yùn)行，供電企業(yè)必須扎扎實(shí)實(shí)做好基礎(chǔ)管理和基層建設(shè)，把各項(xiàng)供電管理工作落到實(shí)處。如何審時度勢，提高認(rèn)識，明確目標(biāo)和要求，促進(jìn)整個供電管理工作再上新臺階。
參考文獻(xiàn)：
［摘要］營銷渠道研究是營銷研究的一個重要組成部分。隨著市場中競爭性環(huán)境的變化以及營銷理論的發(fā)展，營銷渠道研究的關(guān)注點(diǎn)從強(qiáng)調(diào)效率和利益轉(zhuǎn)向強(qiáng)調(diào)權(quán)力和沖突，進(jìn)而轉(zhuǎn)向聯(lián)網(wǎng)以及關(guān)系和聯(lián)盟。在研究渠道治理過程方面，以往的營銷渠道研究大多采用以效率為基礎(chǔ)的任務(wù)環(huán)境視角，而在很大程度上忽視了以合理性為基礎(chǔ)的制度環(huán)境方法。本文提出，營銷渠道從本質(zhì)上說是一種制度安排和跨組織關(guān)系。因此，企業(yè)在治理營銷渠道時，必須關(guān)注其決策和行為的接受度與認(rèn)可度。本文先是回顧了營銷渠道治理和跨組織關(guān)系方面的理論與研究，進(jìn)而從中吸收有價值的觀點(diǎn)，提出了理論框架和一些命題，并通過兩則案例研究進(jìn)行解釋和檢驗(yàn)。
［Key words］Marketing Channels ;Inter-Organizational Power；The In stitutional Environment
［關(guān)鍵詞］營銷渠道；跨組織能力；制度環(huán)境
［中圖分類號］F712［文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識碼］A［文章編號］1005-6432（2014）5-0008-10
1INTRODUCTION
Wilkinson(2001)divides studies about marketing channels into three stages：channel structures，channel behaviors，and channel relationships.In the first stage，researchers tried to find out ways of optimizing the efficiencies and benefits of managing marketing channels.In the second stage，researchers tried to unveil the power and conflict between channel members.In the third stage，researchers tried to find out ways of reducing or eliminating opportunistic behaviors through mutual commitment and honest.Actually，some scholars had begun to study marketing channels from the perspective of network governance.
In most of these studies，many scholars have used the political economy framework(Achrol，Reve and Stern，1983；Frazier，1999；Hutt，Mokwa and Shapiro，1986，Stern and Reve，1980).Scholars implicitly have ascribed active choice behavior to channel members while stressing efficiency in governing channel relationships.They have considered the implications of environmental uncertainty or dependence on environmental resources for dyadic channel relationships(such as conflicts and cooperation，Dwyer，Schurr and Oh，1987)，power balances(such as power-dependence relationships，F(xiàn)razier，1983)，and relationships with entities outside the dyads(such as regulators and other actors，Dutta，Heide and Bergen，1999)from traditional economic efficiency perspectives.In the process，scholars have largely overlooked the ubiquitous influences of the institutional environments and how inter-organizational relationships such as marketing channels are embedded in the larger social context(Granovetter，1985；Grewal & Dharwadkar，2002).Recent advances in organization theory suggest that organizations strive for both economic fitness，which emphasizes the competition for scarce resources and underscores the importance of the task environment，and social fitness，which stresses the pursuit of legitimacy in the eyes of important societal stakeholders and pinpoint the significance of the institutional environment.
The term governance has been broadly defined as a “mode of organizing transactions”(Williamson and Ouchi，1981).A more precise delineation was offered by Palay(1984)，who defines it as “a shorthand expression of the institutional framework in which contracts are initiated，negotiated，monitored，modified and terminated.” Heide(1994)states that governance is a multidimensional phenomenon that encompasses the initiation，termination and ongoing relationship maintenance between a set of parties.
In this paper，the authors propose that marketing channels are inter-organizational relationships in the nature.When companies are governing marketing channels，they are actually governing inter-organizational relationships.This is an institutional process.The primary measuring standard of the governing effects is legitimacy，but not the traditional efficiency.
2THEORETICAL BACKGROUNDS AND MODELInstitutional theory holds that a companys institutional environment is made up of the norms and values of its stakeholders，which include customers，investors，guilds，trustee councils，governments，and partners.According to institutional theory，a company adopts some structure，behavior or process to satisfy other stakeholders.This behavior of seeking external recognition is the result of the institutional environments influence.Therefore，legitimacy becomes a key concept in institutional theory.
Suchman(1995)“a generalized assumption or perception of the actions of an entity are desirable，proper，and appropriate within some socially constructed norms，values，beliefs and definitions.” Legitimacy requires companies behaviors to be consistent with public cognition and emotional expectations.That is，companies will adopt those structures，behaviors，and processes that are considered as effective，appropriate，and popular.Accordingly，companies are not rationally pursuing efficiency but conforming to external rules and norms，so as to make their behaviors be accepted，understood，and recognized by other stakeholders.Therefore，gaining legitimacy is of great importance to companies that operate within the institutional environment.In order to gain legitimacy，many aspects of organizational structures and behaviors are designed and performed to be accepted by the institutional environment but not to pursue efficiency.
Marketing channels governance is a part of a companys operations.The decisions，behaviors，and processes of governing channels must be consistent with the companys strategy.They all have to be accepted，understood，and recognized by other stakeholders.This is an institutionalized process.Therefore，gaining legitimacy of their channel-governing decisions，behaviors，and processes is also of great importance.Market channel wont be one of the sources of sustained competitive advantages if the decisions，behaviors，and process are not legitimate.
2.1Inter-Organizational Studies
Inter-Organizational institutions
Institutional theory insists that we should study organizations environments so as to better study and understand companies behaviors and explain organizational phenomena(Meyer & Rowen，1977).Institutional theory divides environments into institutional environments and task environment，which have different influence on anizations should take into account the task environment and the institutional environment as well，since organizations are always influenced by the institutional environments and they are institutionalized organizations.Institutional theory stresses that organizations are able to take initiatives to change their environments so as to better survive and develop.According to institutional theory，a company is operating within a social framework of norms and values.Their economic behaviors are constrained by technology，information，income，and social constructs as well.Being consistent with social expectations is beneficial to their survival and successes(Baum and Oliver，1991；Carroll and Hannan，1989；DiMaggio and Powell，1983；Oliver，1991).Organizations improve their legitimacy，resources，and surviving capabilities through following up so as to gain benefits.
2.2Inter-Organizational Imitations
Inter-organizational imitation of practices and structures plays a central role in several theories of organizational actions(Haunschild，1993).For example，theories of organizational learning argue that organizations copy other organizations，letting others absorb the costs of experimentation or discovery(Dutton & Freedman，1985；Levitt & March，1988；Lant & Mezias，1990).Strategic choice theories suggest that imitation can be a strategic response to competitor activities，so second-movers take the advantages of the fact that the risks associated with product development have been absorbed by first-movers(Lieberman & Montgomery，1988).Institutionalization theory argues that organizations copy practices that adopted by others in an effort to gain legitimacy(DiMaggio & Powell，1983).
It is self-evident that inter-organizational imitations are of great importance.But how do organizations imitate？ Haunschild & Miner(1997)indicate three modes of inter-organizational imitation，including frequency-based imitation，trait-based imitation，and outcome-based imitation.With frequency-based imitation，organizations tend to imitate actions that have been taken by large numbers of other organizations.Several theoretical rationales have been marshaled to support frequency imitation，and considerable empirical evidence documents its occurrence.According to early institutionalresearch，firms adopt practices and structures that many other firms have adopted because when many firms adopt a practice，the legitimacy of that practice is enhanced(Tolbert and Zucker，1983；DiMaggio and Powell，1983).This effect can occur because the desire for legitimacy leads firms to adopt legitimate practices(Meyer and Rowan，1977).In trait-based imitation，organizations may also selectively imitate practices that have been used by some subset of other organizations.Arguments for trail imitation have generally emphasized the importance of social processes.Early institutional theorists(e.g.，DiMaggio and Powell，1983)suggested that firms adopt the practices of “l(fā)egitimate” organizations and that legitimacy is inferred from traits like large size and anizations may also seek to acquire status by imitating higher-status organizations(Fombrun and Shanley，1990)，which are usually large and successful.With outcome-based imitation，organizations use the outcomes that occur after other organizations use a practice or structure to determine whether they should adopt.Thus，neither the number nor the characteristics of others doing practice “A” is important.Instead，it is the apparent outcomes that occur after other organizations do “A” that determines whether “A” will be imitated.Practices or structures that produced positive outcomes for others will be imitated；those that produced negative outcomes will be avoided.Selective imitation does not arise from features of other users but from perceived consequences of the panies are not limited to only one of the three modes.During the competition，the imitation mode they will apply varies with their competitors and decisions.
2.3Inter-Organizational Power and Dependence
The most comprehensive theoretical statement on inter-organizational power and dependence was a 1978 book by Pfeffer and Salancik，which presented a detailed theoretical discussion as well as the results of a number of the authors earlier empirical works.Pfeffer and Salancik began with four key premises：organizations are first and foremost concerned with survival；in order to survive they require resources which they cannot generate internally；as a consequence，organizations must interact with elements in the environment on which they are depend，which often include other organizations；survival is therefore based on an organizations manage its relations with other organizations.Because organizations depend on elements in their environment for resources，those groups can make claims on them，and organizations may find themselves attempting to satisfy the concerns of these environmental constituencies.According to Pfeffer and Salancik，there are three crucial factors that determine to which one organization depends on another：the importance of the resource to the organizations survival，the extent to which a particular group inside or outside the organization has access to or discretion over use of the resource，and the extent to which alternative sources of the resource exist.
One important feature of Pfeffer and Salanciks discussion is their point that dependence can be mutual.Just as one organization can depend on another，two organizations can simultaneously depend on each other.Power becomes unequal when one organizations dependence exceeds the others.
3CONCLUSION
In order to survive organizations should first be recognized by other organizations or stakeholders.That means they should acquire legitimacy first.Only after acquiring legitimacy can organizations create efficiency through operating resources they obtained from their interaction with the task environment and facilitate organizations sustained development.Therefore，organizations should first consider the legitimacy of their decisions，behaviors，and processes in their operations，and then pursue efficiency.In this way，organizations can survive and develop in the long run.
Since late 1990s，some scholars have begun to elaborate and argue the institutional environments influences(Handelman and Arnold，1999；Homburg，Workman，and Krohmer，1999；McFarland，Bloodgood，and Payan，2004).Grewal and Dharwadkar(2002)indicate that the institutional environment influences the channel attitudes，behaviors，processes，and structures.They proposed a theoretical framework and logic for studying the institutional environments influence on dyadic channel relationships.They developed three institutional processes(regulating，validating，and habitualizing)and their underlying mechanisms according to the various attributes of the institutions and legitimacies，and elaborate on how these processes might influence channel relationships.Reacting to Grewal and Dharwadkars calling for empirical studies on the institutional environment in marketing channels，McFarland，Bloodgood，and Payan(2004)applied institutional theory to examine channel reaction behaviors in supply chains，attempting to explain why fellow channel members imitate one anothers behaviors.The study explains how the institutional environment influence channel behaviors and processes.They argued that institutional isomorphism can provide a rationale for the take-for-granted channel behaviors，which are not able to be explained with economic rationality.
FIGURE 1ORGANIZATIONS SURVIVAL AND DEVELOPMENT
INSTITUTIONAL PERSPECTIVES ON MARKETING CHANNEL GOVERNANCE
In order to study the roles of the institutional environment in marketing channels，we should first know what the institutional environment in marketing channels is.Based on institutional theory(Meyer & Rowan，1977；DiMaggio & Powell，1983；Scott，1987)，we divide institutions into regulatory institutions，normative institutions，and cognitive institutions.We can describe the rules，expectations，and habitual behaviors by dividing the three institutions(Scott & Meyer，1983).But the power and acting space the organizations get are double-edged and locked-in.On the one hand，organizations must conform to rules，expectations，and habitual behaviors required by the institutional environment，which might be a constraint.On the other hand，organizations can tactically use the institutional environment as a resource and an entry barrier as well.Therefore，the institutional environment might be an extraordinary competitive advantage.
3.1Legitimacy in Marketing Channels
In the past decades，sociologists have offered a number of definitions of legitimacy.Pfeffer and his colleagues stressed that legitimacy is an evaluation，but highlighted cultural conformity rather than overt self-justification(Downing & Pfeffer，1975；Pfeffer，1981；Pfeffer & Salancik，1978).In this view，legitimacy connotes “congruence between the social values associated with or implied by organizational activities and the norms of acceptable behavior in the larger social context”(Downing & Pfeffer，1975).Meyer and Scott(Meyer & Scott，1983；Scott，1991)also considered legitimacy as stemming from congruence between the organization and its cultural environment.However，they focused more on the cognitive than the evaluative side(Suchman，1995).Organizations are legitimate when they are understandable，rather than they are desirable.“Organizational legitimacy refers to the extent to which the array of established cultural accounts provide explanations for an organizations existence”(Meyer & Scott，1983b:201；DiMaggio & Powell，1991).Suchmans definition of legitimacy includes the both aspects.He defines legitimacy as “a generalized perception or assumption that the actions of an entity are desirable，proper，or appropriate within some social constructed system of norms，values，attitudes，and definitions”(Suchman，1995).
Our definition of legitimacy in channel governance is based on Suchmans definition.We define channel governance legitimacy as “the extent to which the decisions，behaviors，and processes are accepted and recognized by other stakeholders when they are governing inter-organizational relationships in channels”.
The institutional environment requires legitimate behaviors，so managing legitimacy is of great importance.We argue that managing legitimacy is a dynamic and continuous process(figure 2)，including gaining legitimacy，maintaining legitimacy，and repairing legitimacy(Suchman，1995).Besides，the gained legitimacies are not always effective，since they have lives.When one kind of legitimacy can not satisfy the organizations demand for surviving and developing or a new legitimacy is needed，the organization will begin a new process.Therefore，legitimacy managing is a dynamic and loop process.
FIGURE 2THE DYNAMIC PROCESS OF
MANAGING LEGITIMACY
When evaluating effectiveness and performance of a companys channels structures，behaviors，and processes，we should consider both efficiency，which is influenced by the task environment，and legitimacy that is stressed by institutional theory.An organizations demand for legitimacy is bigger than that for efficiency.Efficiency is only guaranteed in the long run after the organization has gained legitimacy.We can completely understand and explain the process of forming and implementing decisions and explain the problems organizations encounter in channel governance through combining efficiency and legitimacy.The ultimate goal of organizations is not to pursue legitimacy and efficiency，but to gain sustained competitive advantages so as to ensure long-term survival and development(figure 3).
FIGURE 3THE PROCESS OF GAINING SUSTAINED
COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGES
Based on the above discussions，we propose proposition 1 and proposition 2.
H1：Organizations channel governance decisions，behaviors，and processes are embedded in specific institutional environment.The judging standard of channel governance is the extent to which the decisions，behaviors，and processes are accepted and recognized by other stakeholders.The extent determines the possibility of gaining efficiency.
H2：Managing Legitimacy is a dynamic process，during which organizations will apply different strategies to gain，maintain，and repair legitimacy soas to make the extent to which their decisions，behaviors，and processes are accepted and recognized become higher and higher(figure.4).
FIGURE 4JUDGING STANDARD AND OBJECTIVE
OF CHANNEL GOVERNANCE
CHANNEL GOVERNANCE MODEL AND STRATEGY MATRIX
3.2Theoretical Model
Channel governance is a kind of inter-organizational relationship governance in the nature.The fundamental objective of channel governance is to make marketing channel be one of the sources of organizations sustained competitive advantages so as to ensure their long-term survival and development.In order to survive，organizations need to gain efficiency.But it is of more importance that their strategies and behaviors should be anizations should consider long-term benefits as their ultimate objective when they are governing marketing channels.This requires them to apply different governing mechanisms to obtain legitimacy and efficiency.Guo(Guo，Zhan，Hou，Zhou，and Xiao，2004)argued that the sustained competitive advantages gained from channel governance should not only be measured by efficiency，but also be measured by the legitimacy of strategies and behaviors.They expressed the standard as “channel governance efficacy”(figure 5).
FIGURE 5THEORETICAL MODEL FOR CHANNEL GOVERNANCEAll companies are institutionalized ones，whose channel governance decisions and practices are influenced by both the institutional environment and the task environment.With regard to marketing channel governance，the task environment is highly related to uncertainties and dependence an organization encounters，while the institutional environment has an impact on the legitimacy of its decisions，strategies，and practices.Managers should first take into account the demands of both the institutional environment and the task environment when they are governing marketing channels.Then they decide the channel structures and choose appropriate governing mechanisms and strategies to gain legitimacy and efficiency.In the end，they will achieve high channel governance efficacy，making marketing channel a real source of sustained competitive advantages.
Managers should not attempt to reduce uncertainties and dependence at the expense of legitimacy.When managers are trying to increase legitimacy，they are actually reducing the uncertainties and dependence at the same time.Therefore，strategically speaking，managers should reduce uncertainties and dependence in market channels during the institutionalized process of channel governance.
H3：Companies first pursue the legitimacy of channel governance decisions，behaviors，and processes.The higher the legitimacy is，the higher is the possibility of achieving high efficiency.
3.3Channel Governance Strategy Matrix
It may lead to misunderstanding by separate the task environment from the institutional environment in marketing channels，letting believe that the institutional environment and the task environment are independent.But actually，they are not mutually exclusive but concomitant.The two different environments have different impact on marketing channel governance.
Scott(1995)divided both the institutional environment and the task environment into weak and strong and get a two dimensional matrix with four combinations(figure 6).He proposed that different organizations are located on different positions in the matrix.
FIGURE 6CROSS-COMBINATIONS OF THE INSTITUTIONAL
ENVIRONMENT AND THE TASK ENVIRONMENT1
Referring to Scotts Matrix，we propose that organizations belong to different quadrants in different stages of their panies should apply different governing mechanisms and relevant strategies to gain legitimacy and efficiency，so as to improve their channel governance efficacy.
FIGURE 7CHANNEL GOVERNANCE MATRIX
H4：Organizations can apply different combinations of governing mechanisms in accordance with the institutional environment and the task environments influence.
H4.1：When the institutional environments influence is stronger than that of the task environment，organizations should pay more attention to legitimacy mechanisms.
H4.2：When the institutional environments influence is weaker than that of the task environment，organizations should pay more attention to efficiency mechanisms.
4CASE DISCUSSION
In this paper，we conduct a case study to explain our propositions.We study the development of Avon and Amway in China.Since their entry into Chinas market，they have experienced two tremendous changes of Chinas policy.The first change forced to transform their operation patterns.The second one gave them a chance to develop.During the first change，the two companies chose different transforming path.The second change just begins.Our analysis tries to figure out why they chose different transforming paths during the first change and what they should do to deal with they second change，especially what Avon should do to deal with the problems raised by the second change.
4.1Different Transforming Paths
In a response to the policy change，Avon and Amway transformed the operation modes.They both saw the big prospect of China market and wanted to survive and achieve fast development in China.So their operations have to conform to legal requirements and satisfy other stakeholders.After the release of the“Notice on the Relevant Issues concerning Foreign Investment Pyramid Sales Enterprises Change of Sale Modes”，the first thing that both Avon and Amway had to do was to transform their operation modes so as to gain pragmatic legitimacy that is required by legal institutions.Therefore，Avon began to set up counters and stores in Chinas tier-1，tier-2，and tier-3 cities through cooperating with its distributors.Amway set up about 110 counters with its own investment.Avon totally changed its original operation modes and its transformation is considered as a successful example of combining abidance by the rules and market operations.However，Amways transformation is more like temporary compromise.Although Amway set up 110-plus counters according to the Notice，these counters are just Amways outlets.
SCENE 1THE FIRST TRANSFORMINGAvon entered Chinas market in 1990.It applied direct selling as its main distribution channel.Amway entered China in 1995 and it also applied its traditional direct selling to operate its business in Chinas market.However，with the fast development of direct selling in China，some cheating companies rushed out in the name of direct selling.They sold inferior products and were blamed by customers.On April 21 of 1998，China government issued a bill，prohibiting pyramid sales(including direct sales)in China.On June 18 of 1998，the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation，the State Administration for Industry and Commerce，and State Bureau of Internal Trade co-released the “Notice on the Relevant Issues concerning Foreign Investment Pyramid Sales Enterprises Change of Sale Modes” and regulated that foreign investment pyramid sales enterprises must transform to store operation，urging ten foreign investment direct sales enterprises to transform their operations.
Avon and Amway began to transform in 1999.But the difference is that they choose different transforming paths.Avon began to set up about 6000 counters and stores in Chinas tier-1，tier-2，and tier-3 cities，most of which were invested by its distributors.In contrast，Amway just symbolically set up about 110 counters，which were all invested by Amway.The nature of its operation modes did not change
Actually，their choices of transformation paths are closely related to their strategies and their respective core capabilities.Their choices of different modes are based on their core competences and inherent advantages.They both realized that the closer their transformation directions are to their core capabilities and inherent advantages，the lower the expense will be and the higher the possibilities of achieving successes.
Avon was founded by David McConnell in 1886 and was respected as the originator of direct sales.There are only two levels(SM-FD)in Avons system of direct selling.All its incomes are based on sales.Avon never used words like “up-line or down-line”.This system is totally different from the pyramid sales.Miss Avon only sells products but never persuade anybody to participate in alliances.SM is rather a small distributor in Avons original sales chain.The only difference is that there was no counter at that time.Therefore，Avons transformation is reasonable and logic.
Avons traditional mode is single level marketing.Selling products at fixed places has been invented and promoted by Avon Philippines in 1970s.Avon found that the mode invented by Avon Philippines has a good effect on covering new customers，recruiting and training sales representatives，providing services to the representatives and customers，and building the companys image.Therefore，Avon decided to transform to sell products through wholesaling and retailing.Avon applied and approved the new mode of “store plus salespersons” later，but this was just an alternative choice for Avon.Actually，Avon had transformed from a direct sales enterprise to a traditional manufacturer，which sells its products through wholesaling and retailing.In order to sell products，Avon set up counters in department stores，wholesale products to distributors and retailers，and set up stores of their own.
Amway has been famous for its pyramid sales mode all over the world.Sales are achieved within the multi-level network made up of sales representatives and customers.Amways core capabilities and inherent advantages determined that Amway would not set up too many counters and stores.Discarding pyramid sales，Amway wont be Amway any more.“Amway” stands for “the American Way”.Amway left too much imaginative space for Chinese customers when it entered China in 1995.After its transformation，Amway began to recruit salespersons through the stores.In early 2005，Amway decided to stop recruiting new salespersons and manage its 70000-plus salespersons according to their geographic locations so as to appear to be normative and effective.Actually，Amway has been retaining the essence of stimulation mechanisms of pyramid sales after its transformation，which is a key driving force for its rocket development after the transformation.
The way of implementing sales is the key to distinguish pyramid sales and traditional sales.Amway looks like other commodity manufacturers after setting up stores，but actually the stores are just extensions of its previous distribution center.Up till now，Amway only set up about 110 stores in China.Amway has repeatedly stressed that its salespersons should not sponsor sales training programs in the cities which have no Amway stores.Therefore，the stores are just symbols.They are just Amways storehouses and outlets.The real sales are achieved through person to person sales.
Amways advertisements are used to prove that it has transformed and is not a traditional pyramid sales enterprise any more.But actually，advertising is the basis of pyramid sales in China.When pyramid salespersons are confronted with customers challenges，they will reply with “it is impossible to cheat you because this product has been advertised by CCTV”.But all Amways advertisements are only limited to Nutrition that has brought huge sales and profits to the company.
Amway has left people a impression that it is good at political public relations.Because of its political public relation capability，Amway was not force to really change its operation mode.
4.2Who Suffer From Setbacks
SCENE 2AVON AND AMWAYS DEVELOPMENT SINCE 1998
In April of 1998，China Government released the “Notice on the Relevant Issues concerning Foreign Investment Pyramid Sales Enterprises Change of Sale Modes” and regulated that foreign investment pyramid sales enterprises must transform to store operation，urging ten foreign investment direct sales enterprises to transform their operations.About 7 years later，Avon had set up more than 6000 stores in China and nearly changed into a traditional cosmetics manufacturer.In the contrast，Amway just symbolically reacted to the change and set up about 110 stores.Amway goes on to apply its traditional operation mode.In 2005，Amways sale in China had exceeded one billion US.dollars.China has become Amways biggest market on the globe.Avons sale is four times of that before the change.But it is only 2.4 billion RMB and is less than one fourth of Amways
According to the description above，Amways sale is far better than Avons since their transformations in 1998.Our analysis provides several accounts that might explain the disequilibrium.
First of all，Avons transformation from direct selling to traditional stores caused twitches to Avons development.Avon had to take time to adapt to the sudden change.In the contrast，Amway just set up about 110 stores，which are just symbols of its transformation.Amways operation mode does not change in the nature.For Amway，it is just an investment in channels instead of twitches.Although Amways sale once fell to 10 million RMB in the r＼early stage of its transformation，that was just the temporary result of the release of the Notice.
As a sale method that has been existed in western countries for decades，pyramid sale do have its own merits.It is said that the newly issued “Regulation on Direct Selling Administration” also acknowledges this.Amway did not seek incomes from its salespersons.It was a honest enterprise.Since its transformation in 1998，it gained even more living space，since other pyramid sales enterprises were suffering from twitches raised by sudden transformation.
Secondly，most of Avons profits were taken away by its distributors since its transformation，since most of the stores were invested by the distributors.Amway invested all its stores.When Avon chose to transform to stores，its purpose was to occupy the national market.This could be testified by its rapid expanding speed.Avon wanted to set up stores in most of Chinas tier-1，tier-2，and tier-3 cities，it was impossible for itself to invest in all the stores.Avon had to cooperate with regional distributors.Avon could save money and time as well through cooperation with distributors.But Avon had to separate part of its profits to the distributors，or the distributors would not make investment.This is part of the reason why Avons sale was only one fourth of Amways.
In the contrast，Amways prices did not change after the transformation，since its operation mode was the same.A prerequisite for pyramid sales is high price，which include the profits of multilevel salespersons.The extra high price of Amway products had always been challenged by Chinese consumers.
In the end，Amways success of dodging policy makes those companies that really transformed look like victims.For example，Avon suffered a lot from its real transformation.Amway achieved fast development when Avon was suffering from twitches.
Based on the above analysis，we can find that both Avon and Amway have gains and pains during their first round of competition.Although Avons sale was only one fourth of Amways，its image as “a good boy” had been recognized.This was proved by the first license of pilot direct selling.Beside，its sale had been improved to four times of that before the transformation.Amway developed even faster and its sale had exceeded one billion US.dollar.But it has left an impression of “the bad boy”.
4.3Avons Conflicts with Its Distributors
SCENE 3CONFLICTS BETWEEN TRADITIONAL CHANNEL
AND MODERN CHANNELOn April 8 of 2005，Andrea Jung declared in Beijing that Avon had been approved by the Ministry of Commerce and the State Administration for Industry and Commerce to conduct pilot direct selling in Beijing，Tianjin，and Guangdong.On April 19，Avon announced its pilot plan in Guangzhou.Avon would recruit 3000 salespersons in Beijing，Tianjin，and Guangdong.The salespersons would carry out sales in the three places after being trained.The bonus that the salespersons would get would not exceed 25%of the sales.To guarantee customers benefits，Avon deposited 20 million RMB into an account specified by the Ministry of Commerce as warrants.
However，Avon had no time to applaud its victory since it encountered conflicts between traditional channel and modern channel in Guangzhou.The salespersons could provide products and service to consumers.This leads to pressures on the distributors.Several distributors gathered at Avons headquarters in Guangzhou and desired return of goods
Avon encountered conflicts with its distributors at very beginning of the second round of competition with Amway.We argue that the conflict is inevitable，because Avon didnt take into account the extent to which its decision and plan of the pilot direct selling are accepted and recognized by the distributors，and threactions the distributors would take.At the present，Avon had set up more than 6000 stores and 1700 counters，most of which are invested by its distributors.Avon once promised 34%to 40%profits when it persuaded the distributors to invest in setting up stores and counters.After implementing pilot direct selling，sales would skip the distributors and the salespersons could pick up goods directly from Avon.It was obvious that the stores would be stroked.
We argue that the conflict is inevitable out of the following reasons.
First of all，there exist a wide gap between the objectives of Avon and its distributors.Actually，Avons operation mode in China is not pure single level direct selling，but is more like traditional stores that wholesale and retail simultaneously，since it does not have salespersons team，nor does it have stimulation mechanisms for salespersons.Its main income comes from stores and counters.Avon and its distributors form a relative loosely connected super-organization，whose distinct feature is that the members maintain different and interdependent objective systems.Although both Avon and its distributors have contributed to improving efficiency and saving costs so as to achieving channel objectives，they have different claims and opinions with regard to how to achieve the whole channel objectives.For example，as the only enterprise that got the license for pilot direct selling，Avon surely wants to improve its market share in China and competitiveness through the pilot direct selling，so as to realize its long-term development strategies.However，the distributors treat the pilot direct selling as ominous sign，since pilot selling did not only reduce their sales，but also make their inventories a burden.
Of course，Avon wants to see co-existence of the salespersons and the distributors，providing superior service to Avons terminal consumers.But this seems to be Avons own wishful thinking.The channel conflicts caused by the differences in their objectives will test the marketing skills and channel governance capabilities of Avons top management.
Secondly，the benefits of the salespersons and the distributors are unbalanced.Different channel members play different roles.Each member has its own space and action range.Whats more，each member will try to strive for a decision area that is unique to itself.At the present，Avons income mainly comes from stores and counters，who are the main forces of providing services to customers and promoting Avons development.However，the pilot direct selling will have a great influence on the counters and stores.Since salespersons have the right to pick up products directly from Avon，direct selling can reduce indirect and direct costs.Therefore，they have the price advantages.Maybe in the near future，most of Avons income is gained by salespersons and the stores and counters would become Avons exhibition hall and after-service stations.The benefits of the salespersons and the distributors will be unbalanced.
Thirdly，there exist cognitive differences between Avon and its distributors.Avon believes that the advantage of direct selling lies in person to person sales，since salespersons can send products to consumers homes and offices.The distributors hold that their patrons will become salespersons if Avon implements direct selling，which will directly influence the incomes of their employees and lead to employee drainage.The stores are not pure stores any more after the implementation of direct selling，but outlets for Avons direct selling.This makes the distributors unable to afford the high costs of running the stores.The cognitive difference between Avon and its distributors is also one of the causes of the conflicts.
Finally，it is a result of the conflicts between multi-channels.At the present，consumers can buy appropriate Avon products from various channels，including counters，stores，internet stores，and informal channels such as gray channels and illegal stores.Of course，the stores and counters contribute the most to Avon before the implementation of pilot direct selling，so Avon is highly dependent on them.Avon relies on high profit to keep its distributors loyalty.Nevertheless，direct selling requires lots of salespersons to show its competitive advantages.In order to adapt to the rules of direct selling，Avon has to reduce its dependence on its distributors and pay attention to rear its salespersons.Since its transformation in 1998，Avons distributors have contributed a lot to its development in China.Avons implementation do direct selling will have a great impact on the stores performance.The multi-channel conflict between person to person sales and traditional stores is a twitch that Avon experienced during its transformation.
It is obvious that Avons decision and implementation of direct selling is not accepted and recognized by its distributors，leading to the conflict and hostile behaviors.Avon has to apply appropriate strategies and tactics to solve the problems.
5DISCUSSION AND STRATEGIC IMPLICATIONS5.1Discussions
Marketing channel has been considered as one of the sources of sustained competitive advantages.But few companies can really gain sustained advantages from market channel.In the long-range，the primary goal of a company is to survive and then develop.The competition becomes more and more intensive，so the importance of market channels increase.But in previous studies and practices，researchers and managers paid too much attention to the influences of channel governance decisions and behaviors on organizations performance and overlooked the influences of the extent to which those decisions and behaviors were accepted and recognized by other stakeholders on organizations efficiency.
5.2Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research
Our study is explorative.Some concepts are not described in detail and need further complementation and improvement.The institutional environment and the task environment may influence each other.But the influencing process might be very complicated，so we do not carry out a in-depth study.
5.3Strategic Implications
Our study suggests that it is important for managers to understand how institutional environment shapes channel structures and processes.Institutional environment(1)regulates，(2)validates and(3)gives meaning，to channel structures and processes.Although the influence of regulatory processes is clearly visible and discernible，problems may arise when managers deal with normative and cognitive institutions.By understanding how these institutions constrain and facilitate channel structures and processes，managers should be able to(1)better manage their channel within the confines of the institutional environment and(2)devise strategies to think and move beyond the confines of the institutional environment.
ENDNOTES
1.Scott，W.R.Institutions and Organizations［M］.Thousand Oaks CA：Sage,1995.
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本規(guī)則是規(guī)定本公司業(yè)務(wù)處理方針及處理標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，其目的在于使業(yè)務(wù)得以圓滿進(jìn)行。
營業(yè)計(jì)劃
(一)每年擇期舉行不定期的業(yè)務(wù)會計(jì)，并就目前的國際形勢、產(chǎn)業(yè)界趨勢、同行業(yè)市場情況、公司內(nèi)部狀況等情況來檢查并修正目前的營業(yè)方針，方針確定后，傳達(dá)給所有相關(guān)人員。
其內(nèi)容包括：
1.制品種類、項(xiàng)目;
2.價位;
3.選擇、決定接受訂貨的公司;
4.交貨日期及付款日期;
5.契約款品。
(二)有關(guān)未來的產(chǎn)品，應(yīng)按下列要項(xiàng)作為評核：
1.生產(chǎn)、銷售產(chǎn)品必須是具有技術(shù)和成本上的優(yōu)勢及不為競爭者所能擊敗的特色。
2.競爭者新產(chǎn)品的制造方式、設(shè)備等應(yīng)取得專利權(quán)。
(三)產(chǎn)品種類及項(xiàng)目，應(yīng)視行情的好壞，訂貨的繁易等條件，按下列各項(xiàng)進(jìn)行評核：
1.停止多種類少數(shù)量的營業(yè)方針，并以盡量減少種類、增加單位數(shù)量為原則。
2.以接受訂貨為主，訂貨量需加上確實(shí)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)品的預(yù)估生產(chǎn)銷量。
3.所接受的訂貨數(shù)量很多時，除應(yīng)自行生產(chǎn)外并應(yīng)注意其他商品銷路。
(四)商品價格的定位須區(qū)分為目前獲利者與未來獲利者，并考慮較容易讓人接受的價位來決定產(chǎn)品的種類。
(五)在選擇、決定往來的訂貨公司時，須以下列為重點(diǎn)方針：
1.從未來的貿(mào)易、特別需要或重要的產(chǎn)業(yè)著手。
2.推展公家機(jī)關(guān)及地方公共機(jī)構(gòu)的開拓。
(六)交貨及付款日期，則須恪守下列各項(xiàng)方針：
1.到期必須確實(shí)交貨。
2.收到訂單時，須要求正確的交貨日期，并且規(guī)定有計(jì)劃性的生產(chǎn)。
(七)在訂立契約時，要盡可能使契約款項(xiàng)能長期持續(xù)下去。
營業(yè)機(jī)構(gòu)與業(yè)務(wù)分擔(dān)
(一)營業(yè)內(nèi)容可分為內(nèi)務(wù)與外務(wù)兩種，并依此決定各相關(guān)的負(fù)責(zé)人員。
1.內(nèi)務(wù)：
(1)負(fù)責(zé)預(yù)估，接受訂貨及制作，呈辦相關(guān)的文案處理。
(2)記錄、計(jì)算銷售額及收入款項(xiàng)。
(3)處理收入款項(xiàng)。
(4)統(tǒng)計(jì)及制作營業(yè)日報(bào)。
(5)制作及寄送收款通知書。
(6)印制、寄送收據(jù)。
(7)發(fā)貨包裝及監(jiān)督。
(8)與客戶進(jìn)行電話及其他相關(guān)聯(lián)絡(luò)。
(9)搜集、整理產(chǎn)品及市場調(diào)查的相關(guān)資料。
(10)制作收發(fā)文書。
(11)進(jìn)行廣告宣傳及制作、廣告媒體。
(12)計(jì)算招待、出差、事務(wù)管理及旅行費(fèi)用。
(13)接待方面的事務(wù)。
2.外務(wù)：
(1)探尋及決定下批訂單的公司。
(2)對下批訂單后的狀況進(jìn)行調(diào)查、探究及掌握。
(3)與客戶做估價、接受訂貨及延攬交易。
(4)接受訂貨后、負(fù)責(zé)檢查、交貨的各項(xiàng)聯(lián)絡(luò)、協(xié)調(diào)與通知。
(5)回復(fù)客戶的通知及詢問。
(6)做有關(guān)產(chǎn)品進(jìn)廠及檢查的聯(lián)絡(luò)。
(7)開拓、介紹客戶。
(8)客戶的訪問、接待及交際。
(9)同業(yè)間的動向調(diào)查。
(10)新產(chǎn)品的研究、調(diào)查。
(11)制作客戶的問候函。
(12)請款、收款業(yè)務(wù)。
(二)外務(wù)工作通常會依據(jù)客戶別或商品別，分別由正、副二人負(fù)責(zé)工作。正負(fù)責(zé)人不在時，可由副負(fù)責(zé)人或其他相關(guān)人員代為執(zhí)行職務(wù)。
(三)關(guān)于營業(yè)方面的開拓及接受訂貨，則由所有負(fù)責(zé)管理者及經(jīng)理負(fù)責(zé)支援及進(jìn)行接受訂貨的聯(lián)絡(luò)指導(dǎo)。
接受訂貨及運(yùn)籌計(jì)劃
(一)對于客戶的資料應(yīng)隨時加以適當(dāng)分類、記錄下來。相關(guān)者或資料取得者也應(yīng)隨時記入所得的資料。
1.把資料分類為對交易有重要性者及不重要者，并記入下列各評核事項(xiàng)：組織結(jié)構(gòu)、負(fù)責(zé)人員、電話、場所、資產(chǎn)、負(fù)債、信用、業(yè)界的地位、交易情況、付款情況、交易系統(tǒng)、營業(yè)情況、使用場合、交貨情況、態(tài)度等。
2.除了以上的記錄之外，還須將報(bào)紙、雜志剪貼下來，分類整理。
(二)營業(yè)業(yè)務(wù)必須依工作部門別及機(jī)器別等分掌各項(xiàng)工程的現(xiàn)況及趨勢，努力使訂貨業(yè)務(wù)與此配合一致。
(三)調(diào)查各產(chǎn)業(yè)或各地區(qū)、各家公司的經(jīng)營狀況，并以此來掌握有利的公司、事業(yè)、公家機(jī)構(gòu)等，制定有效的推銷政策，并對此展開宣傳工作，以利開拓交易的進(jìn)展。
(四)每月應(yīng)針對預(yù)估及實(shí)際接受訂貨量，制成記錄表，并隨時與制造部門保持聯(lián)系。
1.客戶下個月預(yù)定訂貨量及本月份的實(shí)績。
2.各品項(xiàng)，各工作別的預(yù)定量及本月實(shí)績。
3.交貨、請款及收款的預(yù)定額及本月實(shí)績。
(五)為使生產(chǎn)及所接受的訂貨能夠容易估算，生產(chǎn)及庫存一定要先預(yù)估出固定的數(shù)量，在接受訂貨的同時也能做好交貨。
(六)如果客戶表示熱忱并有意舉行業(yè)務(wù)聯(lián)誼會，公司可借此機(jī)會收集情報(bào)并借此斡旋、開拓交易。
(七)必要時可設(shè)營業(yè)開發(fā)部門，以此支易的斡旋及開拓。
交易原則
(一)進(jìn)行交易時，若有必要，須在交貨后不定期地訪問客戶負(fù)責(zé)人員，以利聽取他們對產(chǎn)品使用狀況意見，或可利用書信代詢。
(二)交貨日期原則上由營業(yè)部向工務(wù)科洽詢后決定，或由生產(chǎn)銷售檢查會議做出決定后通知訂貨的對方。
(三)交易應(yīng)設(shè)法與對方訂立長期或持續(xù)性契約，價格方面則另由其他條項(xiàng)規(guī)定。
(四)所交出的貨品應(yīng)務(wù)求完整、完美。超級秘書網(wǎng)
營業(yè)技術(shù)預(yù)估、接受訂貨、開拓
(一)預(yù)估成本是依據(jù)制造部門所預(yù)估的成本，并經(jīng)由常務(wù)董事會議裁決，決定后提出給客戶。如果產(chǎn)品與過去相同，或曾提出估價單，也須就交貨日期及其他修正事項(xiàng)，取得廠長的認(rèn)可。
(二)在進(jìn)行預(yù)估時，通常需準(zhǔn)備下列各項(xiàng)資料。
1.單價表;
2.工時表;
3.成本計(jì)算表;
4.一般行情價格表。
關(guān)鍵詞：無形資產(chǎn)；營銷性無形資產(chǎn)；轉(zhuǎn)讓定價制度
中圖分類號：F810.42 文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識碼：A 文章編號：1672－3309(2012)01－105－02
一、無形資產(chǎn)的概念、種類與特點(diǎn)
對于無形資產(chǎn)，我們很難確定其準(zhǔn)確的定義。國外有學(xué)者試圖給無形資產(chǎn)定義為在企業(yè)的有形財(cái)產(chǎn)之外可以為企業(yè)創(chuàng)造更多利潤的任何無形的財(cái)產(chǎn)。經(jīng)合組織《轉(zhuǎn)讓定價指南》并沒有對無形資產(chǎn)進(jìn)行定義，而是采取一一列舉的方式對無形資產(chǎn)的范圍加以說明。經(jīng)合組織《轉(zhuǎn)讓定價指南》認(rèn)為無形資產(chǎn)包括使用工業(yè)資產(chǎn)的權(quán)利，如專利、商標(biāo)、商號、設(shè)計(jì)或模型，還包括文學(xué)和藝術(shù)財(cái)產(chǎn)權(quán)利以及知識產(chǎn)權(quán)(例如技術(shù)訣竅、商業(yè)秘密)。
我國《特別納稅調(diào)整實(shí)施辦法(試行)》第二章第10條第2款規(guī)定：“無形資產(chǎn)的轉(zhuǎn)讓和使用，包括土地使用權(quán)、版權(quán)(著作權(quán))、專利、商標(biāo)、客戶名單、營銷渠道、牌號、商業(yè)秘密和專有技術(shù)等特許權(quán)，以及工業(yè)品外觀設(shè)計(jì)或?qū)嵱眯滦偷裙I(yè)產(chǎn)權(quán)的所有權(quán)轉(zhuǎn)讓和使用權(quán)的提供業(yè)務(wù)?！?/p>
由此可見，某些可以帶來巨大價值的無形資產(chǎn)并不一定反映在擁有該無形資產(chǎn)所有權(quán)的公司的資產(chǎn)負(fù)債表的賬面價值中。
二、營銷性無形資產(chǎn)的種類及價值的決定因素
營銷性無形資產(chǎn)包括有助于商業(yè)性開發(fā)的產(chǎn)品或勞務(wù)的商標(biāo)、商號、客戶名單、分銷渠道和一些能提升產(chǎn)品價值的獨(dú)特的名字、符號或圖片。一些營銷性無形資產(chǎn)(例如商標(biāo))可能會受到國家的法律保護(hù)。并且僅在所有者許可的產(chǎn)品或服務(wù)上使用。營銷性無形資產(chǎn)的價值取決于許多因素，包括由商品和服務(wù)的質(zhì)量所培育出的商號或商標(biāo)的聲譽(yù)和信譽(yù)，而這些商品和服務(wù)是在過去的名稱或市場中使用的、質(zhì)量控制的程度、正在進(jìn)行的研發(fā)、正在銷售的商品或服務(wù)的分銷和可用性、為使?jié)撛诳蛻羰煜ど唐泛头?wù)的促銷支出的程度以及是否取得成功(特別是為了發(fā)展經(jīng)銷商、商或其它便利機(jī)構(gòu)的支撐關(guān)系網(wǎng)絡(luò)的廣告和營銷支出)、營銷性無形資產(chǎn)進(jìn)入市場的價值和法律規(guī)定的無形資產(chǎn)的權(quán)利性質(zhì)等。
需要考慮的是，一項(xiàng)貿(mào)易或營銷性無形資產(chǎn)何時存在或者是否存在。例如。不是所有研發(fā)的支出都會形成有價值的貿(mào)易性無形資產(chǎn)，也并不是所有的營銷活動都會創(chuàng)造出營銷性無形資產(chǎn)。我們很難評價任何特定的支出形成企業(yè)資產(chǎn)的程度，并計(jì)算某一年該資產(chǎn)的經(jīng)濟(jì)效果。
存在營銷活動不等于存在營銷性無形資產(chǎn)，認(rèn)定營銷活動是否形成了重要的營銷性無形資產(chǎn)具有高度的事實(shí)依附性，即營銷活動應(yīng)該成功通過該種營銷活動建立了可靠順暢的銷售渠道，有效縮短了流通時間：市場認(rèn)知度因恰當(dāng)?shù)膹V告宣傳(包括學(xué)術(shù)性或純商業(yè)性)而提高：消費(fèi)者的認(rèn)可度得以不斷提升從而增加二次消費(fèi)率：在信賴度、價格、品牌形象等多方面超越同類產(chǎn)品等。
從會計(jì)的角度來講，記為當(dāng)期費(fèi)用的營銷費(fèi)用不具有無形資產(chǎn)的性質(zhì)，只能被認(rèn)為是期間費(fèi)用。以獲取將來收益為目的而資本化的支出會形成無形資產(chǎn)，隨著收益的實(shí)現(xiàn)而攤銷。從經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)的角度來講，不論會計(jì)處理原則如何，即使是作為當(dāng)期費(fèi)用處理的營銷費(fèi)用，只要是對無形資產(chǎn)的形成做出貢獻(xiàn)的支出。就應(yīng)該反映經(jīng)濟(jì)實(shí)際，確認(rèn)為形成無形資產(chǎn)而發(fā)生的遞延費(fèi)用。
三、我國營銷性無形資產(chǎn)轉(zhuǎn)讓定價制度現(xiàn)狀
現(xiàn)階段，我國法律并沒有對營銷性無形資產(chǎn)作出規(guī)定。我國法律中既沒有對無形資產(chǎn)進(jìn)行分類，也沒有營銷性無形資產(chǎn)的概念。營銷性無形資產(chǎn)的概念只是反映于商標(biāo)、品牌的規(guī)定中，而大部分這種規(guī)定又與專利等貿(mào)易性無形資產(chǎn)混為一談。隨著營銷性無形資產(chǎn)轉(zhuǎn)讓定價成為全球關(guān)注的焦點(diǎn)。我國也開始關(guān)注關(guān)聯(lián)企業(yè)通過其營銷行為創(chuàng)造的營銷性無形資產(chǎn)的價值和利潤歸屬。
我國一直以豐富的自然資源、廉價的勞動力和優(yōu)惠的引進(jìn)外資政策吸引外國跨國公司在華投資?？鐕驹谥袊姆止尽⑼鈬抉v中國的常設(shè)機(jī)構(gòu)創(chuàng)造了大量的營銷性無形資產(chǎn)。但由于我國營銷性無形資產(chǎn)轉(zhuǎn)讓定價制度的空白。大量由營銷性無形資產(chǎn)創(chuàng)造的利潤被歸入了境外的母公司，這嚴(yán)重?fù)p害了我國的稅收利益。這一做法忽視了中國市場的特殊因素對利潤產(chǎn)生的帶動作用，并且未對國內(nèi)企業(yè)在市場開拓過程中的利潤貢獻(xiàn)予以適當(dāng)確認(rèn)。另外，我國一直鼓勵國內(nèi)企業(yè)“走出去”。創(chuàng)造國際品牌，但缺乏國內(nèi)法律對營銷性無形資產(chǎn)的保護(hù)，我國企業(yè)創(chuàng)造的營銷性無形資產(chǎn)的價值也會流失。所以，在法律中明確營銷性無形資產(chǎn)轉(zhuǎn)讓定價制度有著重大的意義。
四、營銷性無形資產(chǎn)轉(zhuǎn)讓定價制度的立法完善
營銷性無形資產(chǎn)作為無形資產(chǎn)的一種，它的轉(zhuǎn)讓定價方法與無形資產(chǎn)的轉(zhuǎn)讓定價方法是一致的。即在無形資產(chǎn)轉(zhuǎn)讓定價制度的框架下。我國營銷性無形資產(chǎn)轉(zhuǎn)讓定價制度的立法需要在以下幾個方面加以完善：
(一)在立法中引入營銷性無形資產(chǎn)的概念
我國現(xiàn)存的法律尚不存在營銷性無形資產(chǎn)的概念?！禣ECD轉(zhuǎn)讓定價指南》認(rèn)為營銷性無形資產(chǎn)是商業(yè)性無形資產(chǎn)的一種，還特別與貿(mào)易性無形資產(chǎn)作了對比。我國稅務(wù)機(jī)關(guān)應(yīng)借鑒《OECD轉(zhuǎn)讓定價指南》中的相關(guān)概念，在立法中將無形資產(chǎn)加以分類，并引入營銷性無形資產(chǎn)的概念。
(二)搜集關(guān)聯(lián)企業(yè)關(guān)于營銷性無形資產(chǎn)的有關(guān)信息
1、制定相關(guān)法律法規(guī)，鼓勵納稅人達(dá)成關(guān)聯(lián)企業(yè)內(nèi)部關(guān)于各自所承擔(dān)的職能和風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的協(xié)議。
2、對于營銷性無形資產(chǎn)，制定相關(guān)法律法規(guī)，以明確關(guān)聯(lián)企業(yè)內(nèi)部由營銷性無形資產(chǎn)所帶來的各自利潤歸屬。
(三)界定并記錄營銷性無形資產(chǎn)
在跨國企業(yè)內(nèi)部，如果營銷性無形資產(chǎn)由我國納稅人所擁有，并且廣告營銷推廣費(fèi)用確實(shí)增加了該營銷性無形資產(chǎn)的價值，那么該營銷性無形資產(chǎn)應(yīng)為我國納稅人帶來超額的經(jīng)營利潤。如果無形資產(chǎn)由跨國企業(yè)集團(tuán)內(nèi)的外國納稅人所有，但是市場營銷活動是由我國納稅人實(shí)行，則我國納稅人應(yīng)被看作市場推廣活動而創(chuàng)造的營銷性無形資產(chǎn)的部分或全部的所有者。對企業(yè)的營銷性無形資產(chǎn)的分析與對經(jīng)濟(jì)的分析密不可分。而準(zhǔn)確、可靠的經(jīng)濟(jì)分析主要源自于跨國企業(yè)內(nèi)部雙方對營銷性無形資產(chǎn)的分銷協(xié)議或許可協(xié)議。如果某一個經(jīng)濟(jì)實(shí)體需要對營銷性無形資產(chǎn)進(jìn)行投資，那么預(yù)期的投資額度需要明確記錄下來。企業(yè)的內(nèi)部定價政策應(yīng)該充分反映出該企業(yè)的額外投資及假設(shè)的額外風(fēng)險(xiǎn)，并應(yīng)該合理預(yù)期該無形資產(chǎn)可能帶來的利潤。納稅人可以通過經(jīng)營范圍、經(jīng)營場所、投資項(xiàng)目等記錄。在與關(guān)聯(lián)企業(yè)的協(xié)議中界定其運(yùn)營的營銷性無資產(chǎn)。
(四)界定營銷行為的日常開支與非日常性開支
在企業(yè)日常經(jīng)營活動中。對廣告推廣等營銷行為，應(yīng)界定哪些開支屬于日常性開支，哪些開支屬于非日常性開支。以此來認(rèn)定由營銷行為所創(chuàng)造出的營銷性無形資產(chǎn)，并確定營銷性無形資產(chǎn)所產(chǎn)生的利潤歸屬，并據(jù)以征稅。
關(guān)鍵詞:知識經(jīng)濟(jì);知識營銷;營銷策略
中圖分類號:F71文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)志碼:A文章編號:1673-291X(2010)19-0179-03
當(dāng)前,世界已經(jīng)步入知識經(jīng)濟(jì)的時代,知識成為一國發(fā)展經(jīng)濟(jì)的資本,知識的積累和創(chuàng)新成為促進(jìn)經(jīng)濟(jì)增長的主要動力源,企業(yè)的發(fā)展也從依靠資本積累轉(zhuǎn)向依賴知識的積累與更新。在知識經(jīng)濟(jì)的背景下,知識營銷是知識經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展的必然要求,它強(qiáng)調(diào)產(chǎn)品和服務(wù)的網(wǎng)絡(luò)化、智能化和定制化,不僅在改變著人們的消費(fèi)方式和消費(fèi)觀念,而且還在改變著傳統(tǒng)的營銷方式和營銷法則。對于處于激烈市場競爭中企業(yè)來說,誰能運(yùn)用好知識營銷,誰就能在市場競爭中爭取主動,從而獲得良好的經(jīng)濟(jì)效益和社會效益。
一、知識營銷的定義和特點(diǎn)
所謂知識營銷,是指企業(yè)通過運(yùn)用現(xiàn)代信息技術(shù),向廣大消費(fèi)者不斷傳播與企業(yè)產(chǎn)品有關(guān)的知識,并且通過知識創(chuàng)造需求,全面滿足消費(fèi)者個性化的現(xiàn)實(shí)需要和潛在需要,以實(shí)現(xiàn)消費(fèi)者滿意和企業(yè)長期發(fā)展的一種營銷方法。其本質(zhì)是企業(yè)在營銷過程中注入知識含量與文化內(nèi)蘊(yùn),幫助消費(fèi)者增加產(chǎn)品知識,提高消費(fèi)素質(zhì),從而達(dá)到推介產(chǎn)品、樹立形象、打造核心能力、提升品牌忠誠度、實(shí)現(xiàn)培育市場的目的。
知識營銷作為現(xiàn)代企業(yè)參與市場競爭的新營銷形式,主要具有以下特點(diǎn):
1.知識營銷是學(xué)習(xí)營銷。知識營銷是企業(yè)圍繞著產(chǎn)品銷售,以知識學(xué)習(xí)為主要手段所展開的一系列營銷活動。主要包括以下幾個方面:首先,企業(yè)向消費(fèi)者和社會宣傳自己的產(chǎn)品和服務(wù),推廣普及新技術(shù);其次,知識營銷不僅使消費(fèi)者從直接的產(chǎn)品消費(fèi)中實(shí)現(xiàn)一定的使用價值,而且還從企業(yè)那里學(xué)習(xí)到相關(guān)的知識文化;最后,知識營銷可以通過在互聯(lián)網(wǎng)上建立具有成本低廉、無存貨樣品、全天候服務(wù)和無區(qū)域界限等特點(diǎn)的虛擬商店和虛擬商業(yè)區(qū)進(jìn)行廣告促銷和市場調(diào)查,在企業(yè)和消費(fèi)者之間建立了一個交互式的信息交流系統(tǒng),使企業(yè)與企業(yè)之間、企業(yè)與消費(fèi)者之間可以相互學(xué)習(xí),實(shí)現(xiàn)零距離溝通,為提升企業(yè)市場響應(yīng)能力提供了保證。
2.知識營銷是綠色營銷。隨著人們消費(fèi)的日益健康化、理性化,強(qiáng)調(diào)節(jié)約資源、防治污染、保護(hù)生態(tài)環(huán)境的知識營銷成為企業(yè)營銷的主要方式。企業(yè)在進(jìn)行知識營銷時恪守綠色理念,堅(jiān)持企業(yè)的一切生產(chǎn)經(jīng)營活動都要以保護(hù)自然資源和生態(tài)環(huán)境為出發(fā)點(diǎn),把經(jīng)濟(jì)效益與社會環(huán)境、自然環(huán)境緊密結(jié)合起來,在滿足消費(fèi)者需求的同時,減少環(huán)境污染,保護(hù)和節(jié)約資源,在生產(chǎn)過程中開發(fā)綠色產(chǎn)品,在銷售中實(shí)施綠色營銷組合策略。
3.知識營銷能夠統(tǒng)一消費(fèi)者、企業(yè)和社會三者利益。知識營銷不僅為全社會帶來可觀的經(jīng)濟(jì)效益,更從根本上提高了全社會的知識素質(zhì)。從貝因美知識營銷的效果來看,既為企業(yè)帶來了巨大的經(jīng)濟(jì)效益,又為消費(fèi)者帶來了新的科學(xué)觀念,既滿足了消費(fèi)者提高育嬰水平的要求,也為社會帶來了整體文明水平和知識素質(zhì)的提升,使三者的利益達(dá)到了完美的統(tǒng)一。
4.知識營銷能夠開辟新市場。傳統(tǒng)的營銷只是去占領(lǐng)市場,在有限的市場中盡力擴(kuò)大自己的市場份額,將市場看做靜止不變的,而知識營銷則是培育和創(chuàng)造市場、拓展市場,變有限市場為無限市場。它是以知識帶動需求,以滿足需求來創(chuàng)造市場,使具有創(chuàng)新精神的企業(yè)在市場競爭中處于主動地位。
二、貝因美知識營銷的內(nèi)容
貝因美創(chuàng)于1992年,坐落于西子湖畔的杭州高新技術(shù)開發(fā)區(qū)內(nèi),是以嬰童業(yè)為主體、致力于嬰童行業(yè)的專業(yè)化集團(tuán)公司,涉及嬰幼兒食品、用品生產(chǎn)、研發(fā)、銷售等多個相關(guān)經(jīng)營領(lǐng)域。貝因美自主研發(fā)生產(chǎn)的貝因美系列嬰幼兒食品,涵蓋代乳品、斷奶期食品和輔助食品三大類,專為中國寶寶研制,共計(jì)200多個品種。產(chǎn)品以遵循國際安全保護(hù)法規(guī)為前提,關(guān)注孕婦和嬰兒兩代人的身心健康和智力提高,同時倡導(dǎo)綠色、環(huán)保、健康、安全的科學(xué)理念。十多年來,貝因美從產(chǎn)品的研發(fā)、生產(chǎn)、銷售到全方位的生、養(yǎng)、教服務(wù),成功打造出“愛嬰工程”、“育嬰工程”和“親母工程”三大工程,在生育、養(yǎng)育、教育等多個層面為中國寶寶的健康成長提供服務(wù)。此外,貝因美借助現(xiàn)有的營銷網(wǎng)絡(luò)、渠道和品牌影響,突破原有產(chǎn)業(yè)格局,廣泛拓展服務(wù)領(lǐng)域,以特許連鎖加盟的業(yè)態(tài)模式介入整個孕嬰童用品、食品、服裝及玩具等行業(yè),全方位發(fā)展嬰童業(yè)。貝因美正努力朝著中國孕嬰童產(chǎn)業(yè)的領(lǐng)跑者和綜合運(yùn)營商的目標(biāo)不斷邁進(jìn)。
嬰幼兒食品在中國有著巨大的市場。嬰幼兒食品不同于一般的產(chǎn)品,它關(guān)系著國民素質(zhì)的提高,關(guān)系著祖國的未來。由于嬰幼兒食品結(jié)構(gòu)復(fù)雜,加上市場上產(chǎn)品眾多、功能各異,作為生產(chǎn)企業(yè),無論從產(chǎn)品銷售的角度,還是從對消費(fèi)者負(fù)責(zé)的角度,都存在消費(fèi)引導(dǎo)問題。因此,貝因美決定走知識營銷路線。貝因美的知識營銷策略包括內(nèi)部營銷知識與外部市場知識兩個方面。內(nèi)部營銷知識,包括企業(yè)戰(zhàn)略、文化、資源等各方面的知識,是企業(yè)對營銷基本思想的確立和發(fā)展方向的構(gòu)想,是對營銷觀念的創(chuàng)新,形成與企業(yè)長期的營銷實(shí)踐。外部市場知識是與企業(yè)存在聯(lián)系的客戶、競爭者等對企業(yè)營銷活動產(chǎn)生重要影響的各種外部因素所形成的綜合體,主要通過對消費(fèi)者的需求和行為、競爭情況和競爭優(yōu)勢的確立以及如何適應(yīng)環(huán)境并發(fā)覺市場機(jī)會進(jìn)行及時的總結(jié)、提煉形成的。立足于以上兩個方面,貝因美制定并成功實(shí)施了知識營銷戰(zhàn)略――通過愛嬰工程提升貝因美品牌形象,通過育嬰工程傳播育嬰知識,這不僅提高了對消費(fèi)者責(zé)任感和滿意度,而且在消費(fèi)者心目中樹立起可信賴的育嬰專家品牌形象和領(lǐng)導(dǎo)地位,以贏得競爭優(yōu)勢。
(一)育嬰工程
育嬰工程主要通過向消費(fèi)者傳播育嬰知識,其宗旨是通過持續(xù)的努力,傳播科學(xué)育兒知識,促進(jìn)中國嬰幼兒全面健康成長。包含“生育、養(yǎng)育、教育”三個層面,主旨是倡導(dǎo)“優(yōu)生、優(yōu)育、優(yōu)教”。主要內(nèi)容包括系統(tǒng)開展科學(xué)育嬰咨詢活動,資助有關(guān)機(jī)構(gòu)及研究人員深入開展促進(jìn)嬰幼兒生長發(fā)育和健康的科學(xué)研究,資助、組織交流科學(xué)先進(jìn)的育嬰知識、研究成果和經(jīng)驗(yàn),向全社會傳播科學(xué)的育嬰知識。
1.在全國各地設(shè)立貝因美育嬰咨詢服務(wù)中心,以會員制形式向孕婦和養(yǎng)育3周歲以下嬰幼兒的年輕媽媽提供各類服務(wù),通過全新的科學(xué)育嬰理念和方法,全方位幫助她們科學(xué)育嬰;聘請眾多著名兒科醫(yī)生、營養(yǎng)學(xué)家,開通北京、上海等地的12條育嬰免費(fèi)咨詢電話,并開設(shè)800全國免費(fèi)咨詢熱線免費(fèi)為消費(fèi)者提供服務(wù)。
2.倡導(dǎo)科學(xué)喂養(yǎng),定期評選獎勵健康寶寶。這是貝因美傳播育嬰知識的一個全國性平臺,對中國兒童安全健康的成長起到了極大的推動作用;編著出版中國第一部育嬰專著――《育嬰指南》,包括嬰幼兒的營養(yǎng)、培養(yǎng)、更有貝因美專家講堂板塊,家長可以獲得權(quán)威育兒指導(dǎo),輕松成為育兒專家;免費(fèi)向全國新生兒家長發(fā)送《科學(xué)喂養(yǎng)手冊》,普及嬰兒科學(xué)喂養(yǎng)知識;獨(dú)家斥巨資創(chuàng)建以提供懷孕、早教、胎教、育兒等科學(xué)生養(yǎng)教資訊為主的中國育嬰網(wǎng)。中國育嬰網(wǎng)設(shè)有育兒論壇、育兒問答、寶寶博客等互動頻道,為寶寶生長之路提供充足的源動力。
3.加強(qiáng)對新生兒資料庫的管理運(yùn)用,對消費(fèi)者進(jìn)行跟蹤調(diào)查。建立用戶數(shù)據(jù)庫,對用戶進(jìn)行跟蹤服務(wù),將科普宣傳與產(chǎn)品促銷緊緊融為一體。通過消費(fèi)者意見反饋,改進(jìn)產(chǎn)品和服務(wù),使消費(fèi)水準(zhǔn)得以提高,價值得到提升。十幾年來,貝因美在上海、杭州的部分幼兒園設(shè)立早教班;各地分公司還組織早教隊(duì)伍,進(jìn)入社區(qū),對1~2歲的散居?jì)胗變洪_展早教指導(dǎo)活動,加強(qiáng)幼兒園與社區(qū)的聯(lián)系,幫助社區(qū)家長更好地進(jìn)行優(yōu)生優(yōu)育、科學(xué)育兒,取得了良好的效果和反響。
(二)愛嬰工程
愛嬰工程是貝因美對有特殊困難的嬰幼兒家庭進(jìn)行資助的一項(xiàng)更具針對性的公益活動,是貝因美企業(yè)文化內(nèi)涵的延展和傳播。主要內(nèi)容:對特殊困難的嬰幼兒家庭進(jìn)行資助,如多胞胎、殘疾人家庭;向特殊新生兒提供人道主義援助,如棄嬰、孤兒等。設(shè)立全國性的愛嬰基金,讓更多需要幫助的嬰幼兒得到及時有效的援助。
1.成立貝因美多胞胎之家。1993年開始,貝因美向全國三胞胎以上家庭免費(fèi)提供兩年?duì)I養(yǎng)米粉;1997年,貝因美成功策劃舉辦“情滿中華?全國四胞胎大團(tuán)聚”活動,并于當(dāng)年正式籌建成立全國首個“多胞胎之家”,設(shè)立多胞胎基金。目前已累計(jì)向300多家經(jīng)濟(jì)有困難的多胞胎家庭提供近300多萬元的援助。
2.向全國各地各兒童福利院和其他特殊家庭捐助大量產(chǎn)品,至今價值近1 000多萬元。2007年,貝因美與中國兒童少年基金會聯(lián)手共同設(shè)立1 000萬元的“貝因美母嬰關(guān)愛基金”,旨在關(guān)愛弱勢群體,把愛心獻(xiàn)給最需要的人群。首批啟動的100萬元基金,針對農(nóng)村0～2歲留守女童展開了援助。與此同時,從災(zāi)區(qū)嬰童的長期需要考慮,貝因美還聯(lián)手中國兒童基金會啟動了為期六年、預(yù)算達(dá)1 200萬元的“四川地震嬰童公益扶養(yǎng)計(jì)劃”,向?yàn)?zāi)區(qū)的孤兒、單親家庭及認(rèn)養(yǎng)孤兒的家庭提供長期的全方位養(yǎng)教扶助。
3.倡導(dǎo)優(yōu)生優(yōu)育,開展產(chǎn)前檢查,提高人口素質(zhì)。通過經(jīng)濟(jì)、簡便和安全可靠的檢測方法,從孕婦群體中發(fā)現(xiàn)懷有某些先天缺陷異常胎兒的孕婦個體,進(jìn)而采取措施以最大限度減少異常胎兒出生,從而提高整體人口素質(zhì)。
貝因美緊緊圍繞育嬰工程和愛嬰工程,立足知識營銷組合策略,以最大限度創(chuàng)造消費(fèi)者滿意和消費(fèi)者、社會的長期利益,從而實(shí)現(xiàn)了貝因美自身的市場價值和知識社會價值。
三、貝因美知識營銷給我們的啟示
貝因美采用知識營銷策略,穩(wěn)扎穩(wěn)打,贏得天下。通過樹立“育嬰專家”的大旗,全面打造“育嬰工程”和“愛嬰工程”,不僅進(jìn)一步提升了品牌價值、深化了企業(yè)文化內(nèi)涵、員工的素養(yǎng)也進(jìn)一步增強(qiáng),更重要的是使貝因美通過知識營銷將育嬰咨詢緊密聯(lián)結(jié)婦幼保健、嬰幼兒食品和嬰幼兒用品,以最大限度地提高顧客滿意度,維護(hù)消費(fèi)者、社會的長期利益,從而實(shí)現(xiàn)了貝因美自身的市場價值和社會價值。從貝因美知識營銷可以看出,知識營銷貫穿整個產(chǎn)品的生產(chǎn)過程,其實(shí)現(xiàn)需要企業(yè)的技術(shù)平臺、企業(yè)文化、員工素質(zhì)、企業(yè)形象等支持,是考驗(yàn)企業(yè)管理者管理能力、員工執(zhí)行能力的營銷方式。
1.搭建完善的技術(shù)平臺。貝因美有著完善的信息化營銷服務(wù)平臺及包括客戶服務(wù)管理系統(tǒng)、電子商務(wù)系統(tǒng)、UFmobile系統(tǒng)、Call Center系統(tǒng)、專家知識系統(tǒng)、市場營銷管理系統(tǒng)、決策支持系統(tǒng)等在內(nèi)的ERP系統(tǒng),為員工進(jìn)行知識交流、提高知識學(xué)習(xí)與共享能力提供技術(shù)支持提供了保證,如通過專家知識系統(tǒng),員工可以獲取外部信息、截取情報(bào)資料、推動產(chǎn)品知識、宣傳企業(yè)形象;通過UFmobile,貝因美搭建了與客戶溝通的短信平臺,可以隨時提供服務(wù)、輔助銷售、留住客戶、提高效率、品牌整合與延續(xù),并可以通過短信促銷、客戶關(guān)懷、新品上市通知、促銷信息、會員生日提醒等模式,將其幾十萬的客戶資料進(jìn)行有效的管理,每天從短信平臺中就可以得到幾百條客戶需求線索,形成一個良好的宣傳渠道。
2.打造高素質(zhì)營銷人員。知識營銷要求企業(yè)員工用知識去贏得消費(fèi)者,而營銷隊(duì)伍的高素質(zhì)是保證企業(yè)產(chǎn)品中的知識含量能被客戶感知和接受的條件,是知識營銷能否成功的基礎(chǔ)。高素質(zhì)營銷人員需要有良好的知識獲取能力、知識整合能力、知識共享能力、知識創(chuàng)新能力,并通過各種能力的綜合,實(shí)現(xiàn)市場營銷的全過程知識管理。貝因美不定期開展各種知識營銷講座,在企業(yè)中創(chuàng)辦輔導(dǎo)班,開展企業(yè)文化拓展,對企業(yè)銷售人員進(jìn)行知識培訓(xùn),使銷售人員充分了解企業(yè)知識與文化,努力增強(qiáng)銷售人員的責(zé)任心、主人心、學(xué)習(xí)心、自信心和合作心。幫助營銷人員做到不管發(fā)生什么問題對公司、客戶不抱怨,因?yàn)楸г菇鉀Q不了問題;指導(dǎo)營銷人員不滿足于自身目前的成績,因?yàn)闈M足自己容易消磨意志;引導(dǎo)營銷人員如何具備良好的心理調(diào)節(jié)能力,不斷改變自己、戰(zhàn)勝自己以突破自身的發(fā)展瓶頸。由此,貝因美銷售人員不僅可以憑借豐富的專業(yè)知識、信得過的使用技能向消費(fèi)者傳播產(chǎn)品中的知識與信息,引起消費(fèi)者的認(rèn)識和認(rèn)同,從而促使消費(fèi)者接受和購買企業(yè)的產(chǎn)品,同時,面對日趨個性化的產(chǎn)品需求,貝因美銷售人員可以自行通過研究消費(fèi)者的消費(fèi)心理、文化品位和價值觀念進(jìn)行有針對性的促銷,以個性化、人性化的服務(wù),去滿足消費(fèi)者。
3.提升品牌價值。品牌價值的理性層面是以產(chǎn)品為基礎(chǔ),帶給消費(fèi)者的實(shí)際利益。當(dāng)消費(fèi)者從產(chǎn)品中獲得的利益與滿足感超過所支付的代價就會產(chǎn)生對該品牌理性層面的認(rèn)同,這就是品牌核心價值的基礎(chǔ)。貝因美品牌從創(chuàng)立之初就有著良好的品牌內(nèi)涵與健康的品牌架構(gòu)?！坝龐雽＜摇钡钠放贫ㄎ?準(zhǔn)確地抓住了年輕父母的心態(tài),極具權(quán)威性和親和力,旨在全面地關(guān)心、幫助嬰幼兒的健康成長。同時,貝因美產(chǎn)品在同類產(chǎn)品中品質(zhì)較高,針對中國寶寶身體系統(tǒng)有更為專業(yè)和營養(yǎng)的育嬰方案,在產(chǎn)品的開發(fā)和創(chuàng)新上也居于領(lǐng)先。貝因美產(chǎn)品扎實(shí)的品質(zhì)根基,成為進(jìn)一步提升品牌的最為有利的基礎(chǔ),在強(qiáng)化品牌認(rèn)知的同時進(jìn)一步拉升品牌,占領(lǐng)高端市場空間。這一獨(dú)特的品牌路線,不僅使貝因美從國內(nèi)外奶粉品牌的雙面夾擊中走出來,把奶粉行業(yè)品牌混戰(zhàn)的局面巧妙地轉(zhuǎn)變成“中國嬰兒奶粉”與“西方嬰兒奶粉”兩大陣營;更令貝因美一躍成為“中國嬰兒奶粉”陣營中站在塔尖的品牌。由此,貝因美有效地規(guī)避了與競爭對手的直接對話,穩(wěn)固了貝因美“育嬰專家”的地位,也使下一步與消費(fèi)者的溝通成為可能,其品牌價值進(jìn)一步得到提升。
4.深化企業(yè)文化內(nèi)涵。企業(yè)文化建設(shè)以人為本,就是要通過環(huán)境熏陶、認(rèn)知結(jié)構(gòu)、管理規(guī)范、規(guī)章制度、行為培養(yǎng)等措施,使員工形成正確的價值評判和價值選擇,形成良好的心理和行為模式,推進(jìn)企業(yè)的發(fā)展。貝因美努力推崇“以人為本、員工以事為本,價值認(rèn)同、目標(biāo)達(dá)成”的管理理念。從創(chuàng)業(yè)伊始,貝因美就在傳播著愛心和奉獻(xiàn)的企業(yè)文化,將“愛心”和“奉獻(xiàn)”這一觀念深化于每個員工心中,以愛為核心,倡導(dǎo)愛心事業(yè)、愛心企業(yè)(品牌、文化、產(chǎn)品)、愛心員工,深化“生命因愛而生,世界因愛而美”的品牌理念。“愛心”和“奉獻(xiàn)”作為貝因美的企業(yè)文化進(jìn)一步深化,體現(xiàn)了貝因美的價值,也是貝因美的共識,這將會對貝因美每一個員工產(chǎn)生更深遠(yuǎn)的影響。
參考文獻(xiàn):
[1]李健.營銷新方式:知識營銷[J].企業(yè)文化與管理,2005,(4).
不管是白酒企業(yè)還是飲料行業(yè)抑或是其他消費(fèi)品企業(yè)，戰(zhàn)略和執(zhí)行都是企業(yè)發(fā)展的兩極，相互聯(lián)系，密不可分。幾年前，有一本書《細(xì)節(jié)決定成敗》，作者以大量案例論述了“細(xì)節(jié)”在管理中的重要性；而后出現(xiàn)了《戰(zhàn)略決定成敗》等等很多“山寨”的版本，本人認(rèn)為，對某一層面，戰(zhàn)略、細(xì)節(jié)、執(zhí)行都可以決定成敗，差那一方面都不行，但僅僅有細(xì)節(jié)或者有戰(zhàn)略也不能通向成功。
戰(zhàn)略、戰(zhàn)術(shù)、執(zhí)行都是不可偏廢的，也就是說，只有“系統(tǒng)”才能達(dá)成目標(biāo)。
有人可能會說，戰(zhàn)略是大企業(yè)的事；戰(zhàn)略是高層的事情，至于營銷管理人員來說，大多情況做的是執(zhí)行的事情，至于戰(zhàn)略可以不用過多考慮。此話對嗎？表面看起來很有道理，但細(xì)細(xì)想來卻也未必。
就拿一個區(qū)域市場舉個例子。一個區(qū)域經(jīng)理要做好一個市場，需不需要戰(zhàn)略思維、需不需要策略和戰(zhàn)術(shù)，需不需要系統(tǒng)整合？難道坐等公司制定一切，然后依葫蘆畫瓢進(jìn)行所謂的規(guī)劃或執(zhí)行，之后市場就豁然開朗了嗎？當(dāng)然不是了。一個區(qū)域市場的負(fù)責(zé)人肯定是區(qū)域的戰(zhàn)略和戰(zhàn)術(shù)的制定者，執(zhí)行的第一負(fù)責(zé)人，責(zé)無旁貸。當(dāng)然，這個區(qū)域的戰(zhàn)略和戰(zhàn)術(shù)是在公司的整體戰(zhàn)略和策略之下的，往往將兩者聯(lián)系得更緊密的區(qū)域管理人員，會如魚得水，大展拳腳。
所以說，只有在方向正確之下，執(zhí)行力的提升才能更好的完成企業(yè)營銷目標(biāo)，否則，執(zhí)行力越強(qiáng)，離目標(biāo)越遠(yuǎn)。
成功人士喜歡講“故事”，將你帶進(jìn)一個精心營造的“夢境”，殊不知，但有些成功是個體的，復(fù)制不了。那么，對于企業(yè)的營銷和一線企業(yè)營銷管理人員，他們需要什么？他們需要的是途徑和方法，即提升執(zhí)行力和達(dá)成目標(biāo)的方法。
要保證執(zhí)行力，需要做好三方面的工作，其一，明確的目標(biāo)；其二，完善的制度；其三，優(yōu)異的團(tuán)隊(duì)整體素質(zhì)。
1、明確的目標(biāo)。這里所說的目標(biāo)不是戰(zhàn)略目標(biāo)，基層員工和一線管理人員并不關(guān)心這些，他們接觸到的是階段性的目標(biāo)，注意：階段性的目標(biāo)。一個個小目標(biāo)，如進(jìn)店數(shù)量、鋪貨率、銷量完成、費(fèi)用控制、促銷活動制定、執(zhí)行、效果等等。
2、完善的制度。并不是僅僅是處罰措施，也要有獎勵、協(xié)助、指導(dǎo)、配合的制度。很多企業(yè)制度和表格很多，大家每天填表，成了“作家”，但實(shí)際上，很多表格是沒有用的，只能起到心理安慰作用，純粹是自欺欺人，表面文章。事情一來，大家相互推諉，不愿意承擔(dān)責(zé)任，能少做就少做。一些職能部門認(rèn)為營銷就是吃喝玩樂：你們在外面舒服得很，還要這要那！回去報(bào)賬的時候，你會看到某些財(cái)務(wù)人員的那種形態(tài)，只可意會不可言傳啊。怪不得一個做銷售總監(jiān)的朋友說：我會不定期將公司的一些后勤人員和行政人員拉去市場搞活動，讓他們體會一下銷售到底是怎么做的，錢是怎么賺回來的！
